GOVT chapter 9

the process through which we acquire our political values, our views of government, our party identification or nonidentification, and our attitudes toward participation in election campaigns and other political activities.

political socialization

The philosophical underpinnings of the American Revolution rested on ______ ________ theory, which asserts that all legitimate governmental authority stems from the consent of “the people” and that __________ exists to preserve natural rights.

social contract

government

This theory assumes a rather pure or unified conception of “the public” in which “the people” would act in concert for the common good. “The people” would ratify the constitution, would select governmental leaders, and would “consent” to their rule. This view of government, based on collective opinion and consent, was articulated by Abraham Lincoln in his 1863 Gettysburg Address—our government is “of the people, by the people and for the people.”

social contract theory

Alexis de Tocqueville, a French aristocrat who wrote Democracy in America (1835, 1840), one of the most widely read commentaries on American democracy, stated that public opinion, in a generic sense, was the “predominant authority” in America, serving to make America a _________.

democracy

James Madison, often referred to as the “father of the American Constitution,” argued in Federalist 10 that conflict and disagreement were inevitable in the American political system due to underlying differences regarding ________. He warned that individuals and factions (or groups) pursuing their own self-interests had little concern for the common good. If efforts were made to eliminate the causes of diverse interests and opinions, liberty would be eliminated. His solution was to constrain and control the effects of diverse interests and opinions through institutional arrangements that ________ power with power.

property

balanced

In times of national crisis when the country’s security appears to be threatened, such as the period immediately following the 2001 terrorist attacks, we are clearly “one people” united in the common good. During a crisis, we are bound by a common goal of preservation and an understanding of the need for common or collective action. Collective action is very much rooted in what de Tocqueville defined as “self-interest rightly understood.” When the crisis or threat passes, individual needs reassert themselves, and divisions recur with individualism trumping the ______ good. De Tocqueville focused on the inherent paradox (the seemingly contradictory nature) of America’s democracy and warned that _____________ had the potential to undermine the public or common good and could be manipulated. John Stuart Mills expanded on de Tocqueville’s warning, arguing that “moral coercion” in the form of manipulated collective _______ could be a key source of tyranny.

common

individualism

opinion

Some argue that since public opinion is often based on uninformed opinions and can easily be swayed, it is best to minimize the direct impact of public opinion on policymaking and allow citizens to indirectly influence policymaking primarily through _________.

elections

In Federalist 71, Alexander Hamilton, a forceful proponent of the Constitution, warned against following the “sudden breeze of passion” or listening to every “transient impulse” of the public. Federalist 63 asserted that a “select and stable” ______ would serve as “an anchor against popular fluctuations,” which would protect the people from their “temporary errors.”

Senate

theory holding the view that political power is primarily held by a few individuals who derive power from leadership positions in large business, civic, or government institutions

elitism

Elements of this disconnect between public opinion and public policy can be seen in Texas, where the state constitution does not allow citizens the right to petition statewide for policy changes through referendum, initiative, or recall. Some states give their citizens these rights, and even some cities in Texas allow these rights on a local level through individual city ________.

charters

theory holding that a diversity of groups and people is instrumental in the policy making process and no one group should be able to dominate the decisions of government

pluralism

The reality of contemporary Texas politics probably rests somewhere between the elitist and pluralist extremes. At times, public attention is focused on issues, and elected officials are under great pressure to heed public opinion. When a dominant opinion emerges, officials—elected and unelected—often are swayed and react accordingly. At other times, when the public is generally uninformed and inattentive, officials pay ____ attention to public opinion. Public opinion often is fragmented with no clear consensus. Knowing when to heed public opinion and when to resist it is one mark of great political leadership.

less

One key reason for stability is the fact that there is broad agreement on key values, and we are generally content. There is nearly unanimous agreement on our republican form of government, in which power rests with the people and is exercised by our elected _________. We see fair, free, and competitive elections as essential to democracy.

officials

(generational changes) natural occurance of generational changes due to death; can explain changes in public opinion

cohort replacement

it is estimated that 50 percent of the electorate is replaced every _______ years.

twenty

Rapid changes in opinions are most likely to occur around ______ policy issues

foreign

a consistent set of values and beliefs that form a general philosophy about the proper goals, purpose, and size of government

political ideology

_________ believe that government can be a positive element to protect “common people” against the “money elite” and can be used to both protect order and promote equality. Historically, populists came from a largely agrarian reform movement, but they are no longer limited to farmers and are growing in strength. They include others who challenge the great disparities in wealth in America and challenges to the status quo.

populists

___________ support individual liberty in economic, personal, and social realms over governmental intervention and regulation. Libertarians argue that although governments are necessary, they must be severely limited.

Libertarians

Although the Libertarian Party is still small, its ideology has impacted Texas politics through the Tea Party. The Tea Party started with strong ___________ roots. It has since moved to include more social conservatives, but its libertarian slant has helped to strengthen the conservative hold on the Texas Republican Party.

libertarian

Political _____________ is the conscious and unconscious transmission of political culture and values from one generation to another. This socialization helps people process political information, categorize political knowledge, and develop political values.

socialization

entities such as family, school, community, and the media that help integrate people into society and teach political values

agents of political socialization

Families tend to be the first place ________ learn values that are often long lasting.

children

Primary and secondary schools teach political information, the value of political participation, the hierarchy of authority in society, and the importance of democratic principles. Children in Texas are typically taught the pledges of allegiance to the U.S. and Texas flags, as well as the history and political traditions of the United States and Texas. Texas government, through public schools, attempts to train students to be good citizens and to accept social _____.

order

As early as prekindergarten classes, children are taught collective decision-making and the rules of the majority when they are given choices by their teachers in class activities. In later grades, many schools allow students to conduct mock elections for president of the United States and elect their student body leaders; they even teach students the importance of registering, debating, and voting. Most students emerge from elementary school with a strong sense of patriotism and an idealized notion of U.S. government, thus building a general sense of good will for the political ______.

system

college graduates are less supportive of increased taxation to provide social welfare than those who are less _________.

educated

the belief that one can influence government. internally one might believe that they are knowledgable to influence government. externally one might believe that the government is responsive to citizens.

political efficacy

People who have attended college have a much stronger sense of internal political efficacy; in other words, they have more confidence in their personal ability to impact the world in which they live. Consequently, they tend to be more politically engaged. The more intense one’s sense of efficacy, the more likely one is to become involved __________.

politically

researchers found that Black Americans living in predominantly Black communities generally are traditionally socialized in a manner that fails to encourage political participation. Racial ___________ tends to foster a sense of isolation and disinterest in the political system as it is seen as unresponsive to community needs and interests. Areas with high voter turnout and with racial diversity appear to be the best environments in which to raise politically aware and knowledgeable children who have a sense that their voice can count.

segregation

Religious leaders can be influential in the development of personal identity as it pertains to issues of morality and community __________. Individuals raised in religiously diverse communities are more likely to be engaged in politics and have higher levels of political participation. Religion can act as a reinforcing mechanism of community and family values on a wide array of moral and political issues. People who are either less religious or atheists tend to have different policy preferences than do those who are actively engaged in the practice of their ________.

engagement

religion

There also are connections between church membership or theological views and party affiliation. For example, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Catholics are more likely to be involved in addressing economic and social problems, and many members of these denominations show a preference for the Democratic Party (though many exceptions exist based on other factors). Evangelical fundamentalists, such as Southern Baptists and various Pentecostal groups, favor the Republican Party. Disproportionately, the Jewish population and Black Americans of all religions support the __________ Party.

Democratic

social, economic, political, religions, racial, or cultural divisions within societies.

cleavage

The theory of cross-cutting cleavages refers to the idea that individuals are members of different social groups, so their membership in one group could come at odds with their membership in another _____.

group

In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term “intersectionality” to indicate how race, gender, class, religion, sexuality, and other individual characteristics that are used to oppress intersect with one another. For example, Black American women have different experiences from white women and from Black American men because of the distinctive ways they experience the political world as a result of their race and sex. The intersection of these two identities creates a ______ experience for these often-marginalized women. Rather than focus on different identities as though they are separate, Crenshaw and others argue we need to focus on how our identities reinforce and interact with one another. In essence, intersectionality focuses on how different types of discrimination interact with one another. Some do not support these definitions and perspectives, often arguing that they create a culture of division and “victimhood.”

unique

One important predictor of public opinion is political party ___________.

affiliation

One principal generalization that can be made about partisanship in the United States today is that partisan loyalties are often based on socioeconomic ______.

status

Frequently there is insufficient data on some subgroups, like Asian Americans, for us to draw generalizations (in national and statewide surveys, for example, there are often too few responses from _____ Americans for social scientists to conduct reliable statistical analysis so they are often excluded from many analyses).

Asian

differences in voting and policy preferences between men and women

gender gap

Women are more likely to favor social service programs that provide health care and protect basic human needs, to favor affirmative action, and to support governmental policies that promote equality based on race, gender, and sexual identity. Compared to men, women are less supportive of efforts to remove objectionable books from public libraries and believe voting rules and abortion laws should be less strict than they currently are. Of the public policies highlighted, the most stark differences observed between men and women relate to views on gun _______.

control

Black Americans were enslaved and brought to this country beginning in 1619, and forced servitude placed them at the bottom of the socioeconomic system through the Civil War. The war ended slavery, but on most economic measures, the Black American population in the United States, including Texas, fell into the lower economic stratum of the country. By nearly any measure available, Black Americans, on the whole, continue to have lower standards of living than white Americans. Following the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s, Black Americans emerged as a cohesive and strong political force, largely because of geographic settlement ________. As a whole, Black Americans strongly support the Democratic Party, but many exceptions exist.

patterns

Although Hispanic Americans as a whole are more likely to be Democratic, Hispanic Texans support the Republican Party at higher levels than do Hispanic voters nationally, with Republicans making key gains in some _______ counties in 2020.

border

Black Americans are generally, believe that ______ laws should not be stricter than they currently are and are more positive about the federal government's pandemic response. Conversely, white Texans are more supportive of efforts to remove objectionable books from public libraries, believe voting laws need to be stricter, and are more critical of the federal pandemic response.

voting

Significant differences exist between the more and less educated across the country. Generally speaking, the more educated tend to be more supportive of First Amendment freedoms (like freedom of speech, press, and religion—including the right not to be religious) than those with lower educational attainment. More educated people tend to be more _______ on a variety of social and cultural issues and tend to have different foreign policy preferences.

liberal

An examination of religious traditions in Texas shows that the _______ faith is evangelical Protestants. Religious differences are evident in views on a variety of public policies. Even while controlling for other relevant factors, such as income, Catholics and Jewish people traditionally tend to be more _______ than Protestants.

largest

liberal

One of the best predictors of political engagement is age. Young people are far less likely than older people to engage in politics. The highest rates of participation tend to be among ______-____ people. Younger adults tend to be in a transitory stage of their lives in which they do not identify with the issues or politics of the communities in which they live. They are less likely to be married, less likely to own homes, and more likely to move frequently (hence running into issues with voter registration and residency requirements). Younger voters engage in a wide range of volunteer activities, but many of these tend not to be political.

middle-aged

Most people who participate in politics engage in what scholars call conventional political ________. This includes voting, running for office, contributing to and campaigning for candidates, writing letters, gathering petitions, participating in other grassroots activities, and lobbying. Fewer individuals participate in what is considered unconventional political ________ —acts that may offend some people. These acts can include boycotts, protest marches, and other nonviolent demonstrations, although many individuals consider any lawful, peaceful demonstration a conventional means of exercising their constitutional rights.

behavior

behavior

Also relatively inactive, and sharing many of the characteristics of the inactives, are the voting specialists. These individuals vote regularly in presidential and local elections but seldom engage in other organizational activities or attempt to ________ policymakers personally. A small number of parochial participants do not vote or engage in collective activity or campaigns. Nevertheless, they do contact policymakers over specific issues that affect their _______ lives. The communalists demonstrate a high rate of participation in community life but a low level of campaign activity. These people participate in _________ activities such as church, PTA, and neighborhood associations but rarely engage in the high-conflict game of political campaigns. The campaigners are just the opposite. They participate regularly in political campaigns but rarely in community activities. This group appears to be ________ to the conflict of campaigns.

contact

personal

community

attracted

Habitual voters have markedly different characteristics than habitual nonvoters. Individuals with higher income levels are more likely to be active participants in a wider range of political activities than those with low incomes. Affluent people have more time and resources to engage in political activities. They have a better understanding of the _______, and they are acquainted with other participants and public officials.

process

Historically men had ______ levels of participation, but the turnout rate for women has exceeded men in every presidential election since 1986.

higher

In 2012, for the first time, the Black American voter turnout rate in a presidential election exceeded that of _____ Americans. Hispanic Americans tend to participate at much _____ rates than either white Americans or Black Americans. As we will see in Chapter 11, citizenship requirements constitute a significant factor in the ability of many Hispanic Americans to participate in elections. For the first time ever, the percentage of eligible Hispanic voters exceeded that of Black American voters in 2020.

white

lower

Polls can create the illusion of saliency for issues (the false sense that issues are more important to voters than they ________ are). They can simply capture fleeting opinions that are not deeply held, while other forms of political expression (like writing letters to the editor or volunteering for political candidates) are better measures of deeply held opinions and predispositions to be politically engaged.

actually

a poll conducted at the beginning of a campaign to provide in-depth information to help formulate campaign strategy. they determine initial concerns and things that need to be adressed during a campaign

benchmark poll

a poll conducted repeatedly to check shifts in opinion or voting intentions

tracking poll

a survey, usually conducted by the media, of voters when they leave polling places

exit poll

a form of telemarketing disguised as a public opinion poll, used to sway public opinion, their use has been condemned

push poll

The most common method used to select a sample is a probability technique in which all units in the population have an equal or known chance of being selected. Commercial polling agencies rely almost exclusively on probability samples, as they have known reliability rates and can be assessed for accuracy and _____.

error

The ______ __ _____ constitutes a range in which we would expect the real approval rating to fall if we were able to interview every single likely voter (rather than the approximately 1,200 voters the company interviewed).

margin of error

The _________ _____ is the percentage of confidence that we have that the poll truly represents the feelings of everyone in the population.

confidence level

In many competitive elections, the numbers fall within the margin of error. When this happens, the media often declare that the election is “too close to ____.”

call

Research raises the concern that media coverage of polls may impact opinions rather than opinions being reflected in …

polls

Manually dialing numbers drives up the _________ of the polls but often produces superior results.

costs

This bias occurs when people systematically refuse to participate in polls. The two groups most likely to refuse to participate are younger adults and those less educated.

nonresponse bias