psychology paper 3

what is quantitative research?

it generates numerical data which can be used to produce findings that are generalisable beyond the sample to the target population.

To be confident to generalise the sample has to be large and representative.

what is operationalising a variable?

when a researcher defines a variable and develops a way to measure it

what is a true experiment?

randomly allocates participants to conditions so participants can be in the experimental or the control condition which reduces individual differences.

what is a quasi experiment?

participants are grouped based on a trait or behavior but they do not show direct causation, but they can give a causal relationship between an IV and a DV.

what are the strengths of a quasi experiment

can study variables like age that pre exist

what are 2 limitations of quasi experiments?

there is no random assignment so extraneous variables won’t be eliminated.

there is lower internal validity so it’s harder to establish cause and effect.

what is a correlational study?

a study that measures the relationship between 2 variables without manipulating them.

what is a positive correlation ?

both of the variables increasing or decreasing at the same time

what is a negative correlation?

one variable increases whilst the other decreases

what are 2 strengths of correlational studies?

-ethical way to study sensitive topics

-it produces quantitive data

what are limitations of correlation studies?

-you can’t establish causation

-there may be a confounding variable which is the cause of the relationship.

what is bidirectional ambiguity?

because the independent variable is not manipulated, it is impossible to know if x causes y vice versa or if they interact to cause behaviour.

what is qualitative data?

produce descriptive data that is used to gain an understanding opinions and motivations for an individual or group's behaviour.

what are 3 self report methods

questionnaire

interview

survey

what is a questionnaire?

a set of pre written questions

what are strengths of self report methods?

good for large samples

if you use structured interviews/questions it allows for standardization

what are weaknesses of self report methods?

social desirability bias which is where participants answer to look more socially acceptable

participants may fall for demand characteristics

what are interviews?

they can be tight interview schedules with structured questions or take the form of an informal conversational interview with open-ended questions

what is a focus group?

a group interview where several people are interviewed at the same time and the participants communicate among themselves.

what is observational study?

data collection method that aims to describe behaviour without trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

it is important to try to avoid researcher bias

what are surveys?

a way of collecting a data from a large amount of people and they usually use questionnaires with closed ends questions.

what is a case study?

where a researcher observed how somebody behaves and they gather holistic data.

what is a strength of case studies?

a lot of qualitative data

usually use longitudinal studies so you can see change over time.

what is a limitation of case studies?

-there is a lower generalizability due to the small sample

-there must be a possibility of researcher bias

• its time consuming

what are five ways to avoid bias

double blind trial

random allocation to get rid of individual differences

standardized testing conditions

peer review

triangulation

what is empirical evidence ?

Evidence based on observation or experimentation instead of theory.

what is a confounding variable?

controlled variable that can affect the DV and provide a different explanation for results.

what is an extraneous variable?

Any variable other than the IV that may influence the DV.

how can extraneous and confounding variables be eliminated?

randomization - ensures that participant variables like age, gender, intelligence, motivation are evenly distributed across groups.

counterbalancing - controls for order effects like practice effects which is where participants get better after practice or fatigue effects which is where participants get tired and perform worse.

standardization - controls for situational variables like room temperature, lighting, or experimenter behavior that could influence the DV by mistake.

what is a lab experiment?

an experiment done in a controlled environment and manipulates the IV and measured the DV.

what are pros of a lab experiment?

high internal validity

easy to replicate

what are the limitations of a lab experiment?

low ecological validity due to artificial behaviour

demand characteristics which is where participants may guess the aim.

what are the strengths of a field experiment?

high ecological due to it being conducted in a real world setting.

results can be applied to real life

what are the limitations of a field experiment?

less control over extraneous variables

low internal validity which means it’s harder to establish a cause and effect.

what is a natural experiment?

where the IV occurs naturally and the researcher observes effect on DV.

what are the strengths of a natural experiment?

high ecological validity by using real world scenarios.

what are the limitations of a natural experiment?

can observe relationships not causation

what is an independent research design and give a strength and limitation?

it’s where different participants are assigned to different conditions

-a strength is that it prevents order effects

-a weakness is that individual differences can affect results

what is an repeated measures design and give a strength and limitation?

-all of the participants take part in multiple conditions.

-a strength is that less participants are needed and it gets rid of individual differences

-a weakness is that order effects or participant fatigue can occur.

what is an matched pairs design and give a strength and limitation?

participants are put into pairs based on specific characteristics.

-a strength of this is that there aren’t order effects

-a weakness is that it’s time consuming.

what is random sampling?

where every member of the sample has an equal chance of being selected.

what are 2 strengths of random sampling?

-Eliminates sample bias.
- Increases representativeness.

what is a limitation of random sampling?

Time-consuming.

what is stratified sampling?

the sample divided into subgroups based on things like age, gender and they are sampled proportionally.

what are 2 strengths of stratified sampling?

-controls for key variables.
- Increases population validity.

what is a limitation of stratified sampling?

Complex to organize.

what is opportunity sampling?

you use participants who are readily available.

what is a strength of opportunity sampling?

convenient and cost effective

what are 3 limitations of opportunity sampling?

-Sampling bias.
- Low population validity.
- Overrepresents certain groups.

what are 2 strengths of volunteer sampling?

-Easy to obtain motivated participants.
- Can target specific populations.

what is a limitation of volunteer sampling?

low generalisability.

what is snowball sampling?

where participants refer people they know to the study and its usually for sensitive topics.

what is a strength of snowball sampling?

Useful for hidden populations like drug users.

what is a limitation of snowball sampling?

its non representative with high bias.

what is internal validity?

where a study's results can be trusted to show a true cause-and-effect relationship between the variables being tested

what is external validity?

the extent to which a study's results can be generalized to other people, settings, and situations

what is construct validity?

how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate

what is 1 difference between the goals of qualitative and quantitave data?

quantitative wants to test the hypothesis wheras qualitative wants to inevesitgate the research question.

what is a difference between the goals of qualitative and quantitave data?

quantitative is nomothetic so it wants to understand universal traits that apply to groups of individuals wheras qualitative is idiographic so it wants to understand individual factors that add to a persons behaviour.

what is the difference between generalizability and transferrability?

Generalizability applies findings to a large population in many different situations through quantitative methods. Wheras transferability is applying findings to similar contexts with shared conditions usually in qualititative research.