Health Science Theory Semester Exam Review

Dark Ages

- Medicine regressed to a focus on "saving the soul," and its study was prohibited.
- For a thousand years, medicine was practiced only in monasteries and convents.
- Monks and priests treated patients primarily with prayer.
- The Roman Catholic Church taught that life and death were determined by God.
- Little interest was shown in understanding the body or curing diseases through human effort.
- The average life span during this period was 20-30 years.

Renaissance

- Printing press enabled the mass production of medical books and the spread of discoveries.
- 16th-century scientists adopted the scientific method for accurate conclusions.
- Microscope invented and improved by Van Leeuwenhoek.

Clara Barton

- Cared for soldiers during the Civil War, gathering supplies - nationwide.
- Recognized as a hero after the war.
- Founded the American Red Cross in 1881.

Edward Jenner

- Jenner invented vaccination using cowpox.
- Provided immunity to smallpox.
- Marked the start of preventive measures for contagious diseases.

Hippocrates

Hippocrates described diseases in the 5th century BCE.
Believed disease had natural causes, not linked to gods or superstition.
Separated medicine from religion, focusing on environment, diet, and habits.
Credited with writing the Hippocratic Oath, still used by doctors today.
Known as the father of Western medicine.

Joseph Lister

Father of antiseptic surgery.
Introduced disinfection of instruments and handwashing

Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur developed modern microbiology.
Created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.
Pioneered pasteurization of milk and wine.

Robert Koch

Linked diseases to pathogens.
Koch's discovery supported Lister's aseptic practices.

Van Leeuwenhoek

invented and improved first microscope

HMO

HMOs provide prepaid, comprehensive healthcare at a flat rate.
Services are offered through a network of healthcare professionals and hospitals.
Policyholders select a primary care physician (PCP) and need PCP referrals to see specialists.
Most HMOs require a copayment at the time of a visit.

Social Security

Social Security provides financial assistance through retirement, disability, and survivor benefits.
Funded by payroll taxes.
Offers income support during retirement, illness, or after the death of a wage earner.
Available to eligible workers and their families.

TRICARE

The Military Health System offers TRICARE, which is an
insurance plan offered to everyone - active duty members,
retirees, and their families.

PPO

PPOs contract with a network of preferred providers for policyholders to choose from.
No designated primary care physician; patients can self-refer to specialists.
May require an annual deductible instead of a copayment.
The deductible is the amount paid out of pocket before insurance covers expenses.

Workers Compensation

Government insurance providing wage replacement and medical benefits for work-related injuries.
Accepting WC means forfeiting the right to sue the employer for negligence.
Most states require employers to have worker's compensation insurance.

Co-pay

A copay is a fixed amount that a patient must pay for a healthcare service, such as a doctor's visit or prescription medication, at the time of service. The remaining balance is typically covered by the insurance provider.

Deductable

A deductible is the amount a policyholder must pay out of pocket for healthcare services before their insurance starts covering costs. Once the deductible is met, the insurance company typically covers a larger portion of the expenses.

Premium

A premium is the amount a policyholder pays regularly (monthly, quarterly, or annually) to maintain their health insurance coverage. It is the cost of having the insurance, regardless of whether or not medical services are used.

CDC
FDA
NIH
OSHA

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention): A U.S. federal agency that protects public health and safety by controlling and preventing disease outbreaks, injuries, and disabilities.
FDA (Food and Drug Administration): A U.S. federal agency responsible for regulating food, drugs, medical devices, vaccines, and other health-related products to ensure safety and efficacy.
NIH (National Institutes of Health): A U.S. federal agency that conducts and funds medical research to improve public health.
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration): A U.S. federal agency that ensures safe and healthy working conditions by setting and enforcing standards for workplace safety and health.

Biotechnology

Science-oriented career pathway using living systems to develop healthcare products.
Examples: Biological Scientist, Bioengineer, Forensic Science Technician, Microbiologist.

Health Informatics

A career field bridging medicine and technology, providing critical support to medical services.
Includes positions like medical clerical workers, human resource workers, and medical records workers.

e.x.
Health Informatics, Admissions, Health Information Management.

Support Services

Sector of a healthcare facility ensuring a clean, safe environment.
Examples: Central Supply, Engineering, Food Service, Building Maintenance.

Therapeutic

Career path offering hands-on experience with patients, focusing on improving health over time.
Examples: Physician, EMT, Nursing, Radiology, Rehabilitation, Respiratory Therapy.

Community College

A community college usually offers a two-year degree,
called an associate's degree. Students can use an
associate's degree to transfer to a four-year college,
where they can work toward a bachelor's degree if
desired.
There are also many certificate programs at the
community college level such as emergency medical
technician, medical assistant, health information
technology, medical laboratory technician, and nursing.

university

Some healthcare careers require students to obtain a
bachelor's degree and complete further training before
starting a career. If you are taking classes full-time, this
degree typically takes about 4 years to complete.
Some professional-level careers may prefer candidates
who have earned a further degree such as a master's
degree. This can one or more years of education to
earn.

Tech School

High-level positions often require an advanced degree
called a doctorate degree.
Several professional schools offer such degrees. A
student can earn a professional doctorate in medical
fields such as medical doctor (MD) and veterinarian
(DVM), or an academic doctorate such as doctor of
philosophy (PhD).
Each of these doctoral degrees can take several years to
attain.

Certificate Program

High-level positions often require an advanced degree
called a doctorate degree.
Several professional schools offer such degrees. A
student can earn a professional doctorate in medical
fields such as medical doctor (MD) and veterinarian
(DVM), or an academic doctorate such as doctor of
philosophy (PhD).
Each of these doctoral degrees can take several years to
attain.

There are also many certificate programs at the
community college level such as emergency medical
technician, medical assistant, health information
technology, medical laboratory technician, and nursing.

Auditory vs Visual vs Kinesthetic

Auditory: Learning through listening; benefits from lectures, discussions, and audio materials.
Visual: Learning through seeing; benefits from charts, diagrams, and written instructions.
Kinesthetic: Learning through movement and hands-on activities; benefits from experiments and physical engagement.

What are the different types of communication and challenges for each one

Written Communication
Challenges: Ambiguity, lack of tone, misinterpretation of text, or unclear writing.
Verbal Communication
Challenges: Misunderstanding due to unclear speech, tone, or language barriers.
Nonverbal Communication
Challenges: Misreading body language, facial expressions, or gestures.

What are the types and procedures of reaching a consensus?

Types of Consensus:
Unanimous Consensus: All parties agree on a decision or solution.
Majority Consensus: A decision is made when the majority agrees, though not all parties may be in agreement.
Consensus with Reservations: Agreement is reached, but some individuals express reservations or conditions while accepting the decision.
Procedures for Reaching a Consensus:
Problem Identification: Clearly define the issue or decision that needs to be made.
Information Gathering: Collect relevant data and opinions from all parties involved.
Discussion: Engage in open dialogue, considering different perspectives and viewpoints.
Proposal of Solutions: Suggest multiple solutions or options for consideration.
Evaluation of Options: Evaluate the pros and cons of each proposed solution.
Negotiation: Address any concerns or objections, and work toward compromise if needed.
Agreement: Reach a final decision that everyone can accept, or at least support.
Implementation: Put the agreed-upon solution into action, with follow-up to ensure effectiveness.

Explain the steps to resolve a conflict

Identify the Issue: Clearly define the conflict and understand the root cause, whether it involves patients, teams, or policies.

Gather Information: Collect relevant facts, perspectives, and data from all parties involved to understand the situation fully.

Understand Different Viewpoints: Listen to each party's concerns, considering both emotional and factual aspects.

Brainstorm Possible Solutions: Collaborate with all involved parties to explore different solutions or compromises.

Evaluate Solutions: Assess each potential solution for feasibility, fairness, and impact on patient care or team dynamics.

Reach an Agreement: Choose a solution that is acceptable to all parties, or find a middle ground that resolves the conflict.

Implement the Solution: Put the chosen solution into action, ensuring all parties are clear about their responsibilities.

Monitor and Follow-up: Regularly check on the situation to ensure the conflict is resolved and that the solution is working effectively.

How would you communicate with patients of different age groups?

Children:
Use simple, clear language and short sentences.
Use visuals or toys to help explain medical procedures.
Be patient and comforting, creating a safe and reassuring environment.
Engage with parents to support the child's understanding.


Adolescents:
Use age-appropriate language, while respecting their growing independence.
Encourage open dialogue and listen to their concerns.
Involve them in decision-making to increase their sense of control.
Be mindful of body language and nonverbal cues.


Adults:
Use professional, respectful language and provide clear, concise information.
Allow for questions and provide thorough explanations of procedures or diagnoses.
Recognize their need for autonomy and offer options where appropriate.
Maintain a collaborative approach to decision-making.


Older Adults (Elderly):
Speak slowly and clearly, using simple language.
Ensure they fully understand the information by checking for comprehension.
Be respectful and patient, offering support if needed for decision-making.
Be mindful of sensory impairments (hearing, vision) and adapt communication methods accordingly.

What does it mean to be flexible in a health care setting?

Being flexible in a healthcare setting means adapting to the dynamic and often unpredictable nature of the environment. It involves adjusting to changes in work schedules, roles, or patient needs, such as tailoring care to individual conditions or preferences. Flexibility also includes quickly responding to emergencies, handling unexpected situations, and collaborating effectively with different team members. Additionally, it requires a willingness to learn new practices and technologies, ensuring that patient care and team efficiency are continuously improved.

What does it mean to have tact in a health care setting?

Having tact in a healthcare setting means communicating with sensitivity, respect, and discretion, especially when dealing with difficult or emotional situations. It involves delivering information in a thoughtful and considerate manner, being mindful of the patient's feelings, and maintaining professionalism. Tact helps build trust with patients, families, and colleagues by showing empathy, listening carefully, and responding appropriately to sensitive topics, such as diagnoses or treatment plans. It also means navigating challenging conversations without causing offense or distress, ensuring that patients feel valued and respected.

What does it mean to have patience in a health care setting?

Having patience in a healthcare setting means remaining calm, composed, and understanding, even in stressful or challenging situations. It involves taking the time to listen to patients' concerns, explaining medical information clearly, and offering support without rushing. Patience is essential when dealing with patients who may be anxious, confused, or in pain, as well as in situations that require careful attention to detail. It also means being empathetic and allowing patients to express themselves fully, ensuring they feel heard and respected, which contributes to better care and stronger patient relationships.

What does it mean to have compassion in a health care setting?

Having compassion in a healthcare setting means showing genuine care and concern for the well-being of patients. It involves empathizing with their pain, fear, or distress, and responding with kindness, understanding, and support. Compassion goes beyond just providing medical care; it's about building a connection with patients, offering emotional support, and treating them with dignity and respect. It also means being attentive to their physical and emotional needs, ensuring they feel valued and cared for throughout their treatment and recovery process. Compassion fosters trust and promotes a positive patient experience.

Describe why it is important to be appropriately attired and have good hygiene as a heath care worker.

It is important for healthcare workers to be appropriately attired and maintain good hygiene to ensure both patient safety and professional standards. Proper attire, such as uniforms or scrubs, helps create a clean and identifiable appearance, allowing patients and colleagues to recognize healthcare professionals easily. Good hygiene practices, like regular handwashing and clean clothing, prevent the spread of infections and maintain a sterile environment, reducing the risk of cross-contamination. It also demonstrates professionalism, builds patient trust, and sets a positive example for colleagues. Overall, appropriate attire and hygiene are crucial for maintaining a safe, effective, and respectful healthcare environment.

List the 5 C's of communication

The 5 C's of communication are:
Clear: The message should be easy to understand and free from ambiguity.
Concise: Keep the message brief and to the point, avoiding unnecessary details.
Credible: Use specific facts and figures, avoiding vague language. Trustworthy sources.
Consistent: Ensure the message is accurate and grammatically correct. Dont contradict yourself
Courteous: Communicate with respect, politeness, and consideration for others' feelings.

Skeletal

Composed of bones, cartilage, and joints

Provides an internal support system

Enables humans to stand upright and protect internal organs.

Muscular

Forms the framework that holds the human body together.
Consists of bones, joints, and muscles.

Integumentary

The integumentary system covers and protects the body. Its functions include:
Regulation of body temperature.
Production of Vitamin D from sunlight.
Excretion of minor amounts of waste materials through sweat.
Transmission of sensory information for pain, touch, pressure, and temperature.
Consists of Skin, Sebaceous & Sweat Glands, Hair and Fingernails

Cardiovascular

The circulatory system circulates blood throughout the body to achieve two main outcomes:
Transporting oxygen, nutrients, and hormones.
Removing waste materials from the body.
The heart and blood vessels are the main organs of this system.

Digestive

The digestive system breaks down food to absorb nutrients and eliminate waste. Its functions include:
Breaking down food into nutrients (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, fats).
Absorbing nutrients into the bloodstream.
Removing waste through excretion.
Main organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas.

Organizations of the body (smallest to largest)

cell ---> tissue ---> organ ---> Body system

Muscle Tissue types

3 kinds of muscle tissue
Skeletal: attached to bones & facilitates movement by contracting & relaxing; only voluntary muscle tissue
Cardiac: only found in heart; involuntary
Smooth: lining the walls of internal organs; involuntary

Types of Tissue

Connective tissue - throughout the body (tendons, ligaments, etc)
Epithelial tissue - Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands (skin, the lining of the digestive tract, and respiratory passages)
Muscle tissue - : Found in muscles, allowing movement. Examples include skeletal muscle (attached to bones), smooth muscle (in organs like the stomach), and cardiac muscle (in the heart).
Nervous tissue - Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, responsible for transmitting electrical signals.

Layers of skin

Cutaneous: The outermost layer, often used to refer to the skin as a whole.
Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin, providing a protective barrier.
Dermis: The middle layer, containing blood vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles, and connective tissue.
Subcutaneous (Hypodermis): The deepest layer, consisting of fat and connective tissue, providing insulation and cushioning.

Sudoriferous vs sebaceous gland

Sudoriferous Gland (Sweat Gland): Located in the dermis, responsible for producing sweat to regulate body temperature and eliminate waste products.
Sebaceous Gland: Also found in the dermis, responsible for producing sebum (oil) to lubricate and protect the skin and hair.

Antibodies
Antigens
Homeostasis

Antibodies: Proteins produced by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins.
Antigens: Substances (usually proteins or molecules) that trigger an immune response, typically found on the surface of pathogens, allergens, or foreign cells.
Homeostasis: The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, such as temperature, pH, and fluid balance, despite external changes

Body Cavities/Vital Organs

Dorsal Cavity:
Organs: Brain (in the cranial cavity), spinal cord (in the spinal cavity).
Ventral Cavity:
Organs: Heart, lungs (in the thoracic cavity), digestive organs, kidneys, and reproductive organs (in the abdominal and pelvic cavities).
Abdominal Cavity:
Organs: Stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines, spleen, kidneys.

Quadrants

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ):
Liver (right lobe)
Gallbladder
Right kidney
Part of the small intestine
Ascending colon (part of the colon)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ):
Stomach
Spleen
Left lobe of the liver
Left kidney
Part of the small intestine
Descending colon (part of the colon)

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ):
Appendix
Cecum
Right ovary (in females)
Right fallopian tube (in females)
Part of the small intestine
Right ureter

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ):
Left ovary (in females)
Left fallopian tube (in females)
Part of the small intestine
Sigmoid colon
Left ureter

Planes of Body

Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right halves. Imagine cutting the body in half from front to back.

Median Plane (Midsagittal Plane): A specific type of sagittal plane that divides the body into equal left and right halves.

Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane): Divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections. Think of a door that opens to separate the front and back of the body.

Transverse Plane: Divides the body into top and bottom halves. Imagine slicing the body horizontally, like cutting a loaf of bread into pieces.

Types of movement

Flexion: Bending a joint, decreasing the angle between two body parts (e.g., bending your arm at the elbow).

Extension: Straightening a joint, increasing the angle between two body parts (e.g., straightening your arm after a flex).

Abduction: Moving a body part away from the midline of the body (e.g., raising your arm to the side).

Adduction: Moving a body part toward the midline of the body (e.g., bringing your arm back down to your side).

Directional terms

Medial: Closer to the center or middle of the body. For example, your nose is medial to your ears.

Lateral: Away from the center or middle of the body. For example, your arms are lateral to your chest.

Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment (like where the limb connects to the body). For example, your shoulder is proximal to your elbow.

Distal: Further from the point of attachment. For example, your fingers are distal to your elbow.

Superior: Above or higher than something else. For example, your head is superior to your chest.

Inferior: Below or lower than something else. For example, your feet are inferior to your knees.

Supine: Lying on your back, face up.

Prone: Lying on your stomach, face down.

Dorsal: The back or upper side of the body. For example, your back is dorsal to your chest.

Direct contact vs Indirect Contact

Direct Contact: Involves physical touch or interaction between two individuals or surfaces. For example, shaking hands, hugging, or touching a wound directly.

Indirect Contact: Occurs when there is no physical touch, but transmission happens through an intermediary object or surface. For example, touching a doorknob or shared equipment that has been contaminated.

2 most common fungi

Yeast
Mold

Precautions

Standard Precautions: General infection control practices used for all patients, regardless of their condition. These include hand hygiene, wearing gloves, masks, and gowns when needed, and handling medical waste properly to prevent the spread of infections.

Airborne Precautions: Used for diseases that spread through tiny droplets in the air (e.g., tuberculosis, chickenpox). These precautions include wearing a special mask (like an N95 respirator) and isolating patients in rooms with air filtration systems to prevent the spread of airborne germs.

Contact Precautions: Used to prevent the spread of infections that can be transmitted through direct or indirect contact with a patient or their environment (e.g., MRSA, C. diff). This includes wearing gloves and gowns and limiting patient movement.

Droplet Precautions: Used for infections that spread through larger respiratory droplets (e.g., flu, COVID-19). These precautions involve wearing a mask, gloves, and gown, and maintaining a safe distance from the patient to avoid inhaling droplets.

Fluids that transmit pathogens

Blood, Saliva, Urine, Feces, Vomit, Sweat, Breast milk, Synovial fluid (joint fluid)

Types of Microbes

Pathogen: A microorganism (or agent) that can cause disease. Pathogens can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other microorganisms that invade the body and disrupt normal functions, leading to illness.
Bacteria: Single-celled organisms that can be found in many environments. While some bacteria are beneficial, others can cause infections (e.g., pneumonia, tuberculosis, strep throat). They reproduce by cell division and can be treated with antibiotics.
Virus: A tiny infectious agent that requires a living host cell to replicate. Viruses can cause various diseases, from the common cold to more serious conditions like HIV or COVID-19. They cannot be treated with antibiotics and often require antiviral medications or vaccines for prevention.
Fungi: Organisms that include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. Some fungi can cause infections, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems (e.g., athlete's foot, candidiasis). Fungal infections are often treated with antifungal medications.
Protozoa: Single-celled organisms that live in water or moist environments. Some protozoa are parasites and can cause diseases such as malaria, amoebic dysentery, or giardiasis. These are typically treated with antiparasitic drugs.
Vector: An organism (often an insect or arthropod) that carries and transmits pathogens to other living organisms. Examples include mosquitoes transmitting malaria or Lyme disease via ticks.
Bloodborne Pathogen: Pathogens that are transmitted through contact with infected blood. These include diseases such as HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C. Bloodborne pathogens are a concern in healthcare settings and require strict infection control procedures to prevent transmission.

Types of Cleanliness

Disinfection: The process of cleaning something to remove or destroy most harmful microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi) but not necessarily all. Disinfection is typically used for surfaces or objects that do not need to be sterile, such as countertops or medical equipment that will not enter sterile areas of the body. It doesn't kill all microorganisms (especially spores).

Sterilization: A more thorough process that eliminates or destroys all forms of microbial life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and bacterial spores. Sterilization is often used for medical instruments that will be inserted into the body (e.g., surgical tools, needles). Methods of sterilization include autoclaving (steam), dry heat, or chemical sterilants.

Sanitation: The process of reducing the number of microorganisms on a surface to a safe level, typically through cleaning and disinfection. Sanitation is aimed at maintaining hygiene and safety but may not eliminate all harmful pathogens. It's commonly used in food service, public restrooms, or areas where general cleanliness is required but sterility is not needed.

Atherosclerosis

Hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to plaque buildup, which can lead to heart disease and stroke.

Autism

A developmental disorder that affects communication, behavior, and social interaction, often appearing early in childhood.

Cardiac Arrest

A sudden stop in heart function, leading to the inability of the heart to pump blood, requiring immediate treatment to prevent death.

Cerebral Palsy

A group of disorders affecting movement and muscle coordination caused by brain damage during or shortly after birth.

Chicken Pox

A contagious viral infection causing itchy rashes and blisters, usually affecting children.

Colorectal Cancer

Cancer that starts in the colon or rectum, often presenting with symptoms like blood in stools or changes in bowel habits.

Degenerative Diseases

Diseases where body tissues or organs slowly break down over time, such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease.

Down Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disabilities and certain physical traits.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

A type of stroke caused by bleeding in the brain, often resulting from high blood pressure or a brain aneurysm.

Heart Disease

A broad term for conditions that affect the heart, including coronary artery disease and heart failure, often caused by poor lifestyle choices.

Hereditary

Diseases or conditions passed down from parents to children through genes, such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia.

Infectious

Diseases caused by harmful microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, or fungi, such as the flu or tuberculosis.

Influenza

A contagious viral infection that causes symptoms like fever, body aches, and respiratory problems.

Ischemic Stroke

A stroke caused by a blockage in a blood vessel in the brain, preventing blood flow and oxygen to brain cells.

Measles

A highly contagious viral infection that causes a rash, fever, and cough, preventable by vaccination.

Obesity

Excess body fat that can lead to serious health problems like heart disease, diabetes, and joint issues.

Pancreatitis

Inflammation of the pancreas, often caused by alcohol abuse or gallstones, leading to stomach pain and digestive issues.

Rickets

A disease in children caused by vitamin D deficiency, leading to weakened bones and deformities.

Seizures

Sudden, uncontrolled electrical activity in the brain that can cause convulsions or loss of consciousness.

Sickle Cell Anemia

A genetic blood disorder where red blood cells are shaped abnormally, leading to pain and potential organ damage.

Smallpox

A deadly viral disease that caused fever and a characteristic rash, eradicated through global vaccination.

Stroke

A condition that occurs when blood flow to part of the brain is interrupted, causing brain cell damage.

Type 1 Diabetes

A chronic condition where the pancreas produces little to no insulin, requiring insulin therapy for life.

Type 2 Diabetes

A condition where the body does not use insulin properly, often related to obesity and lack of exercise, requiring lifestyle changes and sometimes medication.

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. They are thick and flexible to handle the high pressure from the heart's pumping action.

Endocardium

The thin inner lining of the heart chambers. It provides a smooth surface for blood flow and helps prevent blood clots.

Myocardium

The thick middle layer of the heart muscle that contracts to pump blood throughout the body. It's the heart's main muscle tissue.

Pericardium

The protective membrane or sac that surrounds the heart. It keeps the heart in place and reduces friction as it beats.

Septum

The wall that divides the left and right sides of the heart. It prevents the mixing of oxygen-rich blood with oxygen-poor blood.

Veins

Blood vessels that carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. They have thinner walls than arteries and contain valves to prevent blood from flowing backward.

Route of the blood

Blood returns to the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae. Then it enters the right atrium. Blood then goes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery and enters the left lung. From there, it travels through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, where it is pumped out to the body through the aorta.

Hematology

Red blood cells (RBCs) are red because they contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen. Hemoglobin has an iron component that gives it a red color when it binds to oxygen. The iron in hemoglobin reflects red light, which is why RBCs appear red. The more oxygen bound to hemoglobin, the brighter the red color, while deoxygenated blood appears a darker red.

The Rh factor is a protein found on the surface of red blood cells. It determines whether your blood type is Rh-positive (if the protein is present) or Rh-negative (if the protein is absent). The Rh factor is important in blood transfusions, pregnancy, and organ transplants.
If a person is Rh-positive, they have the Rh protein, while if they are Rh-negative, they do not. The Rh factor is inherited and located on the surface of red blood cells, alongside the A and B antigens that define blood types (A, B, AB, or O).

Plasma

The pale yellow, liquid component of blood that makes up about 55% of total blood volume. It is primarily composed of water, proteins, nutrients, hormones, and waste products, and helps transport blood cells and nutrients throughout the body.

Platelets

Small, colorless cell fragments in the blood that are essential for blood clotting. They help prevent excessive bleeding by forming clots at the site of an injury.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

Also known as erythrocytes, these are the most common type of blood cells. They contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the body and returns carbon dioxide to be exhaled.

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

Also known as leukocytes, these are part of the immune system and help fight infections and foreign invaders. They are larger and fewer in number compared to RBCs.

Universal Donor

A person with O-negative blood, which can be donated to individuals of any blood type, because O-negative blood lacks A, B, and Rh antigens that could cause reactions in recipients.

Universal Recipient

A person with AB-positive blood, which can receive blood from any donor because AB-positive blood contains both A and B antigens and the Rh factor, meaning it can accept all blood types.

Axillary

Refers to the armpit area, often used when measuring body temperature (axillary temperature), which is usually slightly lower than oral temperature.

Blood Pressure

The force of blood against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps it. It is measured using two numbers: systolic over diastolic, and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

Diastolic

The lower number in a blood pressure reading. It represents the pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest, between beats.