CDFS Chapter 11, 12

What stage of Piaget's theory occurs during middle childhood?

Concrete operational stage.

What conservation tasks are mastered in this stage?

1) Decentration

2) Reversibility

In addition to these conservation tasks, kids can also use classification at this stage.

What seriation task is mastered at this stage?

Transitive inference: the ability to seriate mentally.

What spatial reasoning task is mastered at this stage?

Cognitive maps: mental representations of spaces.

What are some limits of concrete operational thinking?

1) Children's mental operations are:

a) most effective when dealing with concrete information.

b) work poorly with abstract ideas.

2) Continuum of acquisition:

a) Children master concrete operational tasks step by step, not all at once.

b) Gradual mastery of logical concepts indicates limitations of concrete operational thinking.

Impact of culture and schooling

1) Experience of attending school promotes mastery of Piagetian tasks.

2) Certain informal, non-school experiences can also foster operational thought.

Neo-Piagetian theories

1) Operational thinking represents expansion of information-processing capacity.

2) Central conceptual structures enable children to think effectively in wide range of situations.

3) Neo-Piagetian approaches account for unevenness in cognitive development.

Information-Processing Perspective: executive function

Executive function:

1) improves, supporting gains in planning, strategic thinking, and self-monitoring.

2) is influenced by combination of heredity and environmental factors.

Information-Processing Perspective: working-memory capacity

Working-memory capacity:

1) benefits from increased efficiency of thinking.

2) is often deficient in children with persistent learning difficulties in reading and math.

3) can be increased through direct training.

Attention in middle childhood

Attention becomes more:

1) selective (increased ability to attend only to relevant aspects of a task).

2) flexible (ability to flexibly adapt attention to situational requirements).

3) planful (increased ability to evaluate a sequence of steps in advance).

Memory strategies

Memory strategies improve:

1) Rehearsal: repeating items to oneself

2) Organization: grouping related items together

3) Elaboration: creating relationship between pieces of information from different categories

4) Combining several strategies is most effective approach.

5) Organization and elaboration combine items into meaningful chunks, further expanding working memory.

Symptoms, origins, and treatment of ADHD

1) Symptoms:

a) Unable to stay focused on task requiring mental effort for more than a few minutes

b) Often ignore social rules and lash out when frustrated

2) Origins:

a) Highly heritable, but also related to environmental factors

b) Associated with a stressful home life

3) Treatment:

a) Stimulant medication reduces symptoms in 70% of children, but drugs have risks.

b) Best approach is medication combined with interventions that model and reinforce appropriate behavior.

Theory of the mind in middle childhood

1) School-age children view the mind as an active, constructive agent that selects and transforms information.

2) Children understand more about sources of knowledge, including mental inferences and second-order beliefs.

3) Children appreciate second-order false belief—incorrect beliefs about other people's beliefs—which requires recursive thought.

4) ERP and fMRI evidence reveals increasing selectivity in brain regions recruited when thinking about another's mental states.

5) Schooling contributes to more reflective, process-oriented view of the mind.

6) Children develop greater consciousness of how and why mental strategies work.

Cognitive Self-Regulation

Process of cognitive self-regulation involves:

1) continuously monitoring progress toward a goal.

2) checking outcomes.

3) redirecting unsuccessful efforts.

Parents and teachers can foster self-regulation by:

1) pointing out important features of a task.

2) suggesting strategies and explaining their effectiveness.

3) Acquiring effective self-regulatory skills promotes a sense of academic self-efficacy.

Whole language and phonics

1) Whole language:

a) Children are exposed to text in complete form from the beginning.

b) Promotes appreciation of communicative function of written language.

2) Phonics:

a) Children are first coached on phonics—rules for translating written symbols into sounds.

b) Complex reading material is introduced only after mastering these skills.

c) Children learn best with a mixture of whole-language and phonics approaches.

Sequence of reading development

Ages 2-5: "Pretends" to read and write.

Prints own name and other words.

Ages 5-6: Recognizes familiar written words.

Decodes simple, one-syllable words.

Retells story main events in sequence.

Ages 6-7: Decodes regularly spelled one-syllable words.

Recognizes some irregularly spelled words.

Ages 7-8: Reads grade-level stories more fluently, while also comprehending.

Decodes multi-syllable words and more irregularly spelled words.

Ages 9-15: Reads to acquire new knowledge.

Understands different types of texts: biographies, fiction, poetry.

Ages 15-18: Reads more widely, exploring diverse viewpoints.

Applying Information Processing to Academic Learning: Mathematics

1) Math teaching in elementary school builds on informal knowledge of number concepts and counting.

2) Mix of drill in computing and "number sense" is most effective approach.

3) Understanding effective strategies is essential for solid mastery of basic mathematics.

Defining and measuring intelligence

1) Around age 6, IQ becomes more stable and predicts:

a) school performance.

b) educational attainment.

2) Current IQ tests:

a) provide an overall score representing general intelligence and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities.

b) do not measure all aspects of intelligence.

Factor analysis

Factor analysis is used to identify abilities measured by intelligence tests.

Group-administered IQ tests

1) allow testing of large groups.

2) require little training to administer.

3) are useful for instructional planning.

4) identify students who need further evaluation.

Individually-administered IQ tests

1) demand considerable training and experience to give well.

2) provide insight into whether test score accurately reflects child's abilities.

3) are often used to identify highly intelligent children and those with learning problems.

Types of tests

1) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition

a) Age 2 to adulthood

b) Measures five intellectual factors: general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, basic information processing.

2) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV

a) Ages 6 to 16

b) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (for younger children)

c) Measures four broad intellectual factors: verbal reasoning, perceptual (or visual-spatial) reasoning, working memory, processing speed.

Componential analyses

Look for relationships between aspects of information processing and test scores.

Processing speed

Is moderately correlated with IQ.

Other equally important factors are:

1) flexible attention.

2) memory.

3) reasoning strategies.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence

Successful intelligence includes creative intelligence, practical intelligence, and analytical intelligence.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed eight independent intelligences:

1) linguistic

2) logico-mathematical

3) musical

4) spatial

5) bodily-kinesthetic

6) naturalist

7) interpersonal

8) intrapersonal

Explaining Group and Individual Differences in IQ

1) Heredity:

a) Heredity accounts for about half of individual differences in IQ.

b) It does not explain the complex processes through which genes and experience influence intelligence.

2) Environment:

a) Adoption research confirms that heredity and environment jointly contribute to IQ.

b) Evidence suggests that poverty severely depresses intelligence of ethnic minority children.

Flynn effect

Generational gains in IQ (Flynn effect) challenge assumption that ethnic group variations are genetic.

Cultural Influences on IQ

1) Language and communication styles:

a) use of African-American dialect

b) collaborative vs. hierarchical style of communication between many ethnic minority parents and children

2) Knowledge:

a) specific information acquired through majority-culture upbringing

b) effects of knowledge on reasoning ability

c) amount of time spent in school

3) Stereotypes:

a) effect of stereotype threat—fear of being judged on basis of negative stereotype

Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing

1) "Static" assessments underestimate how well children can do after adult assistance.

2) Dynamic assessment:

a) is a form of testing in which adult introduces purposeful teaching into testing situation.

b) is consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.

c) reveals what a child can attain with social support.

Language development in middle childhood

1) Metalinguistic awareness develops.

2) Vocabulary increases fourfold:

a) Reading contributes enormously to vocabulary growth.

b) Children grasp double meanings, appreciate riddles and puns.

3) Mastery of grammar increases:

a) Children use passive voice more frequently.

b) Understanding of infinitive phrases advances.

4) Dramatic gains occur in pragmatics:

a) Children can adapt to needs of listeners in challenging communicative situations.

b) Ability to evaluate clarity of others' messages improves.

c) Narratives advance in organization, detail, and expressiveness.

Learning 2 languages

1) Children can become bilingual by:

a) learning two languages at once.

b) learning a first language, then a second.

2) Bilingual children (like adults) engage in code switching—producing an utterance in one language containing "guest" words from the other.

3) A sensitive period for second-language development exists.

4) Children who become fluent in two languages develop more efficient executive-function skills.

5) Advantages of bilingualism provide strong justification for bilingual education.

6) In the United States, bilingual education is controversial.

Academic Achievement and Class Size

1) Small class size from kindergarten through third grade:

a) predicts greater likelihood of graduating from high school.

b) is associated with better academic progress.

2) Teachers in small classes:

a) spend less time disciplining.

b) spend more time teaching and giving individual attention.

3) Children who learn in smaller groups show:

a) better concentration.

b) higher-quality class participation.

c) more favorable attitudes toward school.

Educational philosophies

Traditional vs. constructivist classrooms

1) Social-constructivist classrooms:

a) reciprocal teaching

b) communities of learners

2) Teacher-student interaction:

a) strong impact on academic self-esteem, achievement, and social behavior of at-risk children

b) educational self-fulfilling prophecies

3) Grouping practices:

a) homogeneous vs. heterogeneous learning contexts

b) cooperative learning

Magnet schools

1) Racial divide in U.S. schools has improved only modestly since 2000.

2) Inner-city schools are vastly disadvantaged in funding and educational opportunities.

3) Magnet schools offer usual curriculum plus specific area of interest, such as performing arts.

4) Research suggests higher achievement in reading and math achievement for low-SES, ethnic minority students attending magnet schools.

Educational media

1) Computers and Internet access are integrated into schools in industrialized nations.

2) Computer use is associated with academic progress: word processing, problem solving, metacognition.

3) Nonviolent video game play has cognitive benefits:

a) gains in eye-and-hand coordination, visual processing speed, attention, strategic thinking, spatial reasoning.

4) Digital divide:

a) Low-SES homes are less likely to have computers/Internet, especially tablets and educational apps.

b) Boys spend more time with screen media than girls.

c) Girls and low-SES students need opportunities to benefit from positive aspects of screen-media technology.

Teaching children with special needs

1) Inclusive classrooms:

a) Children with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students for part or all of school day.

b) Students with mild intellectual disability may be included.

c) Some students experience full inclusion.

d) If steps are taken to promote positive peer relationships, inclusion can foster prosocial behavior.

2) Students with learning disabilities:

a) These students have great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading.

b) Some benefit academically from inclusion, but many do not.

c) Achievement gains depend on severity of disability and support services available.

Giftedness

1) Exceptional intellectual strength

2) Usually measured by high IQ

3) Creativity

How is creativity measured?

Creativity: measured by divergent thinking.

Talent

1) Outstanding performance in a specific field

2) Must be nurtured

How well educated are US children?

1) Factors that affect educational quality:

a) societal values

b) school resources

c) quality of teaching

d) parental support

2) Performance of U.S. students in international comparisons:

a) typically at or below international averages

b) less challenging, more fact-focused instruction; less opportunity for high-level reasoning, critical thinking.

c) large socioeconomic inequalities associated with lower achievement

3) U.S. families, schools, society must work together to upgrade education.

Strategies for Improving U.S. Education

1) Support parents in:

a) attaining economic security.

b) creating stimulating home learning environments.

c) monitoring children's academic progress.

d) communicating often with teachers.

2) Invest in high-quality preschool education.

3) Strengthen teacher education.

4) Provide intellectually challenging, relevant instruction with real-world applications.

5) Vigorously pursue school improvements that reduce large inequities in quality between SES and ethnic groups.

erikson's theory: industry vs inferiority

the psychological conflict of middle childhood which is resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills + tasks

beginning of schooling marks the transition to middle childhood

...

inferiority

pessimism in children who lack confidence in their ability to do things well

social comparisons

judgments of one's own appearance, abilities, + behavior in relation to those of others

self-esteem

-declines over the 1st few yrs of elementary school

-increases from 4th grade on

-gender-stereotyped expectations affect self-esteem

-achievement fosters self-esteem

attributions

our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior

mastory-oriented attributions

crediting one's successes to ability

-a characteristic one can improve through trying hard + can count on when facing new challenges

-they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a very difficult task

learned helplessness

children attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability

-when they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible

-unlike their mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed + cannot be improved by trying hard

attribution retraining

encourages learned helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort

self-conscious emotions

-pride + guilt become clearly governed by personal responsibility

problem-centered coping

children appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, +decide what to do about it

emotion-centered coping

internal, private, + aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome

emotional self-efficacy

a feeling of being in control of one's emotional experience

in-group favoritism

children prefer their own group, generalizing from self to similar others

out-group prejudice

requires a more challenging social comparison b/w in-group + out-group

out-group favoritism

children assign positive characteristics to the privileged white majority + negative characteristics to their own group

factors that determine the extent to which children hold racial + ethnic biases

-a fixed view of personality traits

-overly high self-esteem

-a social world in which ppl are sorted into groups

intergroup contact

racially + ethnically dif children have equal status, work toward common goals, + become personally acquainted

-long-term contact + collaboration among neighborhood, school, + community groups--> best way to reduce prejudice

peer groups

collectives that generate unique values + standards for behavior + a social structure of leaders + followers

-organize on the basis of proximity (being in the same classroom) + similarity in sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, popularity, + aggression

friendships

a mutually agreed-on relationship

-trust is a friendship's defining feature

peer acceptance

refers to likability - the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates, such as class mates, as a worthy social partner

social prominence

children's judgements of the peers most of their classmates admire

-4 categories

~popular children - are well-liked

~rejected children - are disliked

~controversial children - are liked and disliked

~neglected children - seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively

popular-prosocial children

combine academic + social competence

popular-antisocial children

athletically skilled but poor students who cause trouble + defy adult authority + relationally aggressive boys + girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, + spreading rumors about other children

-includes "tough boys"

rejected-aggressive children

show high rates of conflict, physical + relational aggression, + hyperactive, inattentive, + impulsive behavior

rejected-withdrawn children

passive + socially awkward

peer victimization

certain children become targets of verbal + physical attacks or other forms of abuse

androgynous

when a child describes themselves as having some "other-gender" characteristics

gender typicality

the degree to which the child feels he or she "fits in" w/ others of the same gender

gender contentedness

the degree to which the child feels comfortable w/ his/her gender assignment

felt pressure to conform to gender roles

the degree to which the child feels parents + peers disapprove of his/her gender-related traits

coregulation

a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making

only children

-higher self-esteem

-do better in school

-attain high levels of education

^all compared to children w/ siblings

divorce

-high maternal stress, depression, + anxiety

-mother's decline in well-being

divorce mediation

a series of meetings b/w divorcing adults + a trained professional aimed at reducing family conflict, including legal battles over property division + child custody

joint custody

grants parents an equal say in important decisions about the child's upbringing

cohabit

share a sexual relationship + a residence w/ a partner outside of marriage

blended (reconstituted) family

parent, stepparent, + children form a new family

-most common form is mother-stepfather family

self-care children

children who regularly look after themselves for some period of time after school

-increases w/ age + SES

common fears

poor academic performance, peer rejection, possibility of personal harm (being harmed or shot), threats to parent's health, + media events

-shaped in part by the child's culture

phobia

an intense, unmanageable fear; (5%) of school aged children

characteristics of abusers + victims (child abuse)

-girls are most often the victims

-abuser is usually male --> father or someone the parent knows well

-linked to poverty + marital instability