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Scientific Method
A systematic process for conducting experiments and making observations.
Independent Variable
The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to test its effects.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment.
Major Elements of Life
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, determining its chemical properties.
Isotopes
Variants of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Properties of Water
Cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, universal solvent, and density.
Chemical Bonds
Forces holding atoms together, including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
Biological Molecules
Four major groups include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Monomers and Polymers
Monomers are building blocks; polymers are chains of monomers.
Dehydration Synthesis
The process that links monomers by releasing water.
Hydrolysis
The process that breaks down polymers into monomers by adding water.
Prokaryotic Cells
Cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotic Cells
Cells containing a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Plasma Membrane
A cell boundary that regulates the entry and exit of substances.
Endomembrane System
Network of membranes involved in synthesis, storage, and transport.
Nucleus
The membrane-bound organelle that contains DNA.
Potential Energy
Energy stored in an object due to its position or arrangement.
Kinetic Energy
Energy of motion.
Thermodynamics Laws
Principles governing energy transfers; includes conservation of energy and entropy.
Enzymes
Biocatalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.
Passive Transport
Movement of molecules across a membrane without energy input.
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
Facilitated Diffusion
a passive transport process that moves molecules or ions across a cell membrane with the help of specialized proteins
Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, with the equation: C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP.
Aerobic Respiration
Cellular respiration that uses oxygen.
Anaerobic Respiration
Cellular respiration that occurs without oxygen.
Stages of Cellular Respiration
Include Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation.
Photosynthesis Equation
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2.
Photosystem
Protein and pigment complex involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
Light Reactions
The first stage of photosynthesis that converts solar energy into chemical energy.
Calvin Cycle
The second stage of photosynthesis that synthesizes glucose from carbon dioxide.
Chromosomes
thread-like structure located inside the nucleus of a cell, composed of DNA tightly coiled around proteins, which carries genetic information in the form of genes, passed from parents to offspring
Chromatids
Identical halves of a duplicated chromosome.
Stages of Mitosis
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase; stages in cell division.
Human Chromosome Number
Humans have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.
Stages of Meiosis
Include Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, followed by Meiosis II.
Genetic Recombination
Genetic variation that occurs during meiosis, especially in Prophase I.
Nondisjunction
The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division.
Genes
Segments of DNA that encode for proteins and determine traits.
Alleles
Different versions of a gene.
Homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a given gene.
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles for a given gene.
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism.
Phenotype
The observable characteristics or traits of an organism.
Mendel's Laws
Principles of inheritance proposed by Gregor Mendel, including the law of segregation and independent assortment.
Genetic Cross
Breeding experiment that measures trait inheritance.
Sex-linked Inheritance
Inheritance patterns associated with genes located on sex chromosomes.
Epigenetics
Study of heritable changes in gene expression without alterations to the DNA sequence.
DNA Structure
Composed of nucleotides, each containing a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base.
RNA Structure
Single-stranded molecule composed of ribonucleotides.
Complementary Base Pairing
A-T and G-C bonding in DNA/RNA.
Transcription
The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
Translation
The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA.
RNA Processing
Modification of RNA before it can be translated into a protein.
Restriction Enzyme
Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.
Gel Electrophoresis
Technique used to separate DNA fragments by size through a gel matrix.
Gene Expression
The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product.
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
Mechanisms that control genes' expression in eukaryotic cells.
oncogenes
mutated genes that can cause cancer by causing cells to divide and grow uncontrollably
Taxonomy
The science of classifying organisms.
Linnaean System
Classification system based on hierarchical categories.
Natural Selection
Mechanism by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.
Homology
Similarity in characteristics resulting from shared ancestry.
Homologous Structures
Anatomical features in different species that are similar due to common ancestry.
Vestigial Structures
Body parts that have lost their original function through evolution.
Gene Pool
The total collection of genes in a population at any one time.
Allele Frequency
The relative frequency of an allele at a genetic locus in a population.
Hardy-Weinberg Equation
p² + 2pq + q² = 1; used to calculate allele frequencies.
Microevolution
Small-scale evolutionary changes within a population.
Evolutionary Fitness
The reproductive success of an organism relative to other organisms.
Reproductive Success
The passing of genes to the next generation.
Sexual Selection
Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.
Sexual Dimorphism
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of a species.
Stabilizing Selection
Natural selection that favors average individuals in a population.
Common Ancestry
The concept that different species share a common ancestor.
Lamarck's Evolution
Proposed that organism traits evolve based on their use or disuse.
Charles Darwin
He observed variation, competition, and adaptations in species during his voyage.
Evidence Supporting Darwin's Theory
Fossil records, anatomical similarities, and molecular biology.
Fossils
Preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms.
Evolutionary Tree
A diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species.
Population
A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
Mechanisms of Evolution
Natural selection, mutations, gene flow, and genetic drift.
Genetic Variation
Diversity in gene frequencies among a population.
Gene Pool Analysis
Method used to determine genetic diversity and evolution in a population.
Allele Frequencies
Proportion of a specific allele among all alleles for a specific gene.
Microevolution Mechanisms
Mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.
Genetic Drift
Random changes in allele frequencies in a population.
Ways Genetic Drift Occurs
Bottleneck effect and founder effect.
Gene Flow
Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.
Sexual Selection Evolution
Process of evolution driven by mate choice and competition.
Outcomes of Natural Selection
Directional selection, stabilizing selection, and disruptive selection.
Homology vs. Analogy
Homology indicates a common ancestor; analogy refers to similar traits due to convergent evolution.
Convergent Evolution
Evolution of similar traits in distantly related species due to adaptation to similar environments.
Reproductive Barrier
Any factor that prevents two species from producing viable offspring.
Allopatric Speciation
Speciation occurring due to geographical isolation.
Sympatric Speciation
Speciation that occurs without geographical separation.
Exaptations
Traits that evolved for one purpose but were co-opted for another.
Analogous Structures
Body parts in different species that have similar functions but evolved independently.
