Lifespan Development & Infant Growth: Theories, Stages, and Research

What were Freud's major stages of psychosexual development?

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Why did Freud believe early childhood experiences are important?

He believed early experiences shape later personality.

How do Freud's and Erikson's theories compare?

Both use stages and believe early experiences matter; Freud focused on sexual development, Erikson on social development.

What is the behavioral perspective on development?

Behavior is learned through experiences and the environment.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning through association.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning through rewards or punishment.

Why is the child considered an active learner in Piaget's theory?

Children actively build knowledge by exploring and interacting with their environment.

Define schema.

Mental framework.

What is assimilation?

Adding new information to an existing schema.

What is accommodation?

Changing a schema.

What is the information-processing perspective?

It focuses on how people take in, remember, and use information.

What are longitudinal studies?

Studies that observe the same people over time.

What are cross-sectional studies?

Studies that compare different ages at one time.

What are sequential studies?

Studies that combine both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.

What is a cohort?

People born around the same time.

What influences can cohort effects have on research findings?

Shared experiences can affect development.

What are the age ranges for prenatal development?

Conception to birth.

What are the age ranges for infancy/toddlerhood?

Birth to 2 years.

What are the age ranges for preschool?

2 to 6 years.

What are the age ranges for middle childhood?

6 to 11 years.

What are the age ranges for adolescence?

11 to 18 years.

What are the age ranges for young adulthood?

18 to 40 years.

What are the age ranges for middle adulthood?

40 to 65 years.

What are the age ranges for late adulthood?

65 years and older.

What are four influences on development?

Genetics, environment, culture, and historical experiences.

What defines preterm infants?

Born before 37 weeks.

What defines post-term infants?

Born after 42 weeks.

What are common childbirth options?

Hospital, birthing center, and home birth.

Why is a baby's position at birth important?

It can make delivery easier or harder.

What is the most favorable position for a baby at birth?

Head-down position.

What is a reflex?

An automatic response.

Why are infant reflexes important?

They help show that the nervous system is functioning properly.

What is the rooting reflex?

Turns toward a touch on the cheek.

What is the sucking reflex?

Sucks when something touches the mouth.

What is the Moro reflex?

Throws out arms when startled.

What is the Babinski reflex?

Toes spread when the foot is stroked.

What is the palmar grasp reflex?

Grasps when the palm is touched.

What is newborn vision like?

Limited and blurry; sees high-contrast patterns best.

How do newborns demonstrate abilities in touch, taste, and smell?

They are sensitive to touch and can recognize different tastes and smells.

How can classical conditioning occur in newborns?

Newborns can learn to associate one stimulus with another.

What is habituation?

Responding less to something after repeated exposure.

What are the major states of arousal in infancy?

Sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness, active alertness, and crying.

What are the four developmental principles of physical growth?

Cephalocaudal, proximodistal, gross-to-fine, and simple-to-complex.

What are major developmental milestones during infancy?

Head control, rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, and walking.

Why is infancy critical for brain growth?

The brain grows rapidly and forms many neural connections.

What is synaptic pruning?

The removal of unused neural connections.

What are biological rhythms?

Regular body patterns.

How does sleep change during infancy?

Infant sleep becomes more organized and predictable over time.

What sounds are infants especially responsive to?

Human voices, particularly familiar voices.

What is the Sensorimotor Stage?

Birth to about 2 years; infants learn through their senses and actions.

What are Piaget's six substages?

Reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination, tertiary circular reactions, mental representation.

What is object permanence?

Knowing an object still exists when unseen.

What is mental representation?

The ability to mentally think about something that is not present.

How does information processing explain infant memory and attention?

It shows how infants gradually improve their attention, memory, and ability to process information.

Define phoneme.

Sound.

Define morpheme.

Smallest unit of meaning.

Define syntax.

Rules for combining words.

What is telegraphic speech?

Short speech using mainly important words.

What is underextension?

Using a word too narrowly.

What is overextension?

Using a word too broadly.

How does infant-directed speech help language acquisition?

It gets infants' attention and helps them learn language.

What is attachment?

A strong emotional bond with a caregiver.

Why is attachment important?

It provides security and supports development.

What is stranger anxiety?

Fear of unfamiliar people.

When does stranger anxiety typically appear?

During the second half of the first year.

What is separation anxiety?

Distress when a caregiver leaves.

Why is separation anxiety important?

It shows that the infant has formed an attachment.

What are the major attachment styles?

Secure, avoidant, resistant/ambivalent, disorganized-disoriented.

How did Harlow's monkey studies contribute to our understanding of attachment?

They showed that attachment is based on more than food; comfort and contact are important.

What did Harlow conclude about contact comfort?

Physical comfort and closeness are important for attachment.

Describe easy babies.

Calm and adaptable.

Describe difficult babies.

Irritable and less adaptable.

Describe slow-to-warm-up babies.

Cautious and gradually adjusts.

How can goodness-of-fit affect child development?

Children tend to develop better when their environment fits their temperament.

What are Erikson's first two psychosocial stages?

Trust vs. Mistrust and Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.

What is the outcome of successful resolution in Trust vs. Mistrust?

Trust and security.

What is the outcome of successful resolution in Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt?

Independence and self-control.