Chapter 2: Psychological Research

60-question practice flashcards covering key concepts from the psychology research methods lecture notes.

Why is research important in psychology ?

Because psychology is a science and research provides empirical evidence to verify claims rather than relying on intuition.

What does empirical mean in the context of psychological research?

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed repeatedly regardless of who observes.

When evaluating a claim, what questions should you consider about the claimant?

What is their expertise? What might they gain? Is the claim justified by the evidence? What do other researchers think?

What two main types of reasoning psychological research?

Inductive and deductive reasoning.

Give an example of deductive reasoning

All living things require energy to survive; ducks are living; therefore ducks require energy to survive.

What are the typical steps in the scientific method as described?

Proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and modifying theories based on results; using induction to form theories and generate hypotheses.

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas that explains observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables, usually if-then and falsifiable.

What does falsifiability refer to, and how does Freud's theory relate?

Falsifiability means a claim can be shown to be incorrect; many specifics of Freud's theories are not falsifiable, though they influenced thinking about the unconscious.

What are some common research approaches

Clinical/case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, archival research, longitudinal and cross-sectional research.

What is a clinical or case study?

An in-depth focus on one individual, often with extreme or unique circumstances, offering insight but limited generalizability.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observation of behavior in its natural setting, aiming to minimize observer bias and interference.

What is observer bias?

When observations are skewed to align with observer expectations; clear criteria help reduce bias.

What are surveys and how are they administered?

A set of questions delivered in various formats (paper, electronic, verbal) to gather data from a sample.

What is archival research?

Using past records or data sets to answer questions or find patterns.

What is longitudinal research?

Studies the same group repeatedly over time; allows understanding changes but may have weakening.

What is cross-sectional research?

Compares different segments of a population at a single point in time.

What is correlational research?

Examines relationships between two or more variables; described by the correlation coefficient r from -1 to +1.

How is a strong positive correlation represented on a scatterplot?

Data points align along a rising straight line, indicating both variables increase together.

What does a negative correlation indicate?

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Does correlation imply causation?

No; causation requires experimental design and can be confounded by a third variable.

What is a confounding variable in the ice-cream and crime example?

Temperature, which affects both ice-cream sales and outdoor activity linked to crime.

What are illusory correlations?

Seeing a relationship between two things when no real relationship exists; linked to confirmation bias.

What is necessary to establish causality?

A scientific experiment with proper design, including random assignment, manipulation of the independent variable, and control of extraneous variables.

What is an experimental group?

The participants who experience the manipulated variable.

What is a control group?

The participants who do not experience the manipulated variable and serve as a baseline for comparison.

What is an operational definition?

A precise description of how variables will be measured and manipulated.

What is experimenter bias?

Researcher expectations that can skew results.

What is participant bias?

Participant expectations that can skew results.

What is a single-blind study as described in the notes?

The researcher knows group assignments while participants do not.

What is a double-blind study?

Both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments.

What is the placebo effect?

Participants' expectations or beliefs influencing their experience; a placebo can produce apparent benefits.

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the experimenter; ideally the only important difference between groups.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

What is a population ?

the entire group of interest

What is random sampling and why is it preferred?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, increasing representativeness.

What is random assignment and its purpose?

Participants have an equal chance of being placed in either group to prevent preexisting differences.

What is a quasi-experimental design?

When the independent variable cannot be manipulated or random assignment is not feasible; causation is difficult to establish.

Why are some questions studied using non-experimental approaches?

Ethical concerns prevent experiments

Researchers use case studies or surveys instead.

What does statistical analysis do after data collection?

Determines how likely observed differences are due to chance; results are described as significant or non-significant.

What is replication in research?

Repeating a study or adding measures to verify reliability and generalizability of findings.

What is reliability in research?

Consistency and reproducibility of results; same test would yield the same results on repeated trials.

What is inter-rater reliability?

assesses the consistency of observations by different observers.

What is validity?

Accuracy of a measure in what it is intended to measure; valid measures are reliable, but reliability does not guarantee validity.

What is IRB and its role in research?

Institutional Review Board; reviews and approves research involving human participants to ensure ethics.

What is informed consent?

Process of informing participants about risks and implications and obtaining voluntary consent, including confidentiality.

What is deception in research?

Purposely misleading participants to preserve study integrity; must be followed by debriefing.

What is debriefing?

Providing complete and truthful information about the study after participation, especially if deception was used.

What is the Tuskegee Syphilis Study used to illustrate?

Historical ethical breaches; participants were not informed of their disease or given treatment, highlighting the need for ethical guidelines.

What is IACUC and its function?

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee; reviews non-human animal research proposals to ensure ethics and welfare.

What is the relationship between reliability and validity?

A valid measure is always reliable; a reliable measure is not necessarily valid.

What is replication, and why is it important?

Repeating studies to verify results and assess reliability and generalizability.

What is the impact of a confounding variable on experiments?

It can create a false impression of a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.

What is the role of the experimental hypothesis?

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables derived from theory or prior research.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

A theory is a well-developed explanation; a hypothesis is a testable prediction about relationships between variables.

Why is random assignment essential in true experiments?

To ensure groups are equivalent at the start and that differences are due to the manipulated variable.

What is the primary purpose of debriefing after deception in research?

To reveal the true nature of the study and address any potential distress or misunderstanding.

What is the main ethical safeguard for research with human participants?

Informed consent and IRB oversight.

What is meant by ‘operationalizing’ a variable?

Defining how a concept will be measured and manipulated in a specific, replicable way.

Which type of research design helps study development over time?

Longitudinal research.

Which type of research design compares different age groups at one time?

Cross-sectional research.

What is the primary limitation of case studies like Genie?

Limited generalizability to the broader population.

What is a Sample

a subset drawn from that population.

Attrition

the loss of study participants over time.