Real of comm (with the seminar questions)

What is communication

the act of communicating with people

Etimology

Latin "communio" and "communitas" (community) - “communicatio” refers to the process of communication

Frank Dance

first comprehensive book on communication theory (120+ definitions)

Griffin's working definition

Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response 

What is a theory? 

“a formal statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or of ideas that are suggested to explain a fact or event or, more generally, an opinion or explanation” (Cambridge Dictionary)  

GRIFFIN'S 3 METAPHORS

Theories as Nets: “Theories are nets cast to catch what we call ‘the world’ ... We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.”  

• Theories as Lenses: theories shape our perception by focusing attention on some features of communication while ignoring other features  

• Theories as Maps: however, that the map is not the territory 

Robert T. Craig's proposal  

He proposed seven domains/traditions of communication theory—seven different ways of thinking about how communication works in the world  

 The traditions offer “distinct, alternative vocabularies” and describe “ways of conceptualizing communication problems and practices 

Metamodel

an overarching way of thinking about communication  

Model of models

possibility to constitute communication in a wide variety of ways  

Seven traditions of communication theory  

rhetorical, semiotic, phenomenological, cybernetic, sociopsychological, sociocultural, and critical traditions.

The socio-psychological tradition

views communication as interpersonal interaction and influence and explores situations requiring manipulation of behaviour 

The cybernetic tradition

views communication as a system of information processing and explores noise, overload, malfunction or bug in the system

The rhetorical tradition

• views communication as the practical art of discourse or as artful public address  

The socio-cultural tradition

views communication as the creation and enactment of social reality and explores the (re)production of social order, conflict, alienation etc.  

The critical tradition

views communication as the reflective challenge of unjust discourse and explores hegemonic ideology, oppression, resistance 

The phenomenological tradition

views communication as the experience of self and others through dialogue and explores one's perception and interpretation of their own experience 

Why do we communicate? 

GROUPS OF NEEDS:

physical needs, identity needs, social needs, practical needs   

Physical needs  

• Communication's presence or absence affects health  

Identity needs

• Communication is the primary way we learn who we are  

• Our sense of identity comes from the ways we interact with other people

Social needs

Communication is the principal way relationships are created

Practical needs

Communication is essential in dealing with more practical matters, e.g., order a coffee, direct the doctor to where it hurts, inform the plumber etc

What is interpersonal communication?

(…..) is communication that takes place between people who are interdependent and have some knowledge of each other  

The structure of interpersonal communication

THE SENDER WHO ENCODES THE MESSAGE,  

THE MESSAGE, THE CHANNEL THAT TRANSMITS THE MESSAGE,  

THE RECEIVER WHO DECODES THE MESSAGE,  

THE CONTEXT OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS  

Communicator

Personality and role: varying degree of self-involvement, related to the extent of shared personal knowledge between communication partners - Continuum from pure role-like behaviour to passionate, self-involved communication  

Life world of the communicator: the specific set of knowledge with which the communicator enters and participates in current communication  

Goal of the communicator: can be long-term, strategic goals and tactical goals for the immediate situation  

Communicator skills: modifiability of the image, the receptiveness of communication, influencing power etc.  

Communicator's need for communication: linked to the need for security, the nature of a social being, the symbolic-social environment

Code (encoding/decoding)

Sensorimotor code: different sensory modalities (e.g., sight, hearing) and movement itself (e.g., dance) - concrete and ancient  

Mental image: "vividness" independent of perception, but of different degrees  

Language: different types, such as sign language, national and programming languages, occupational language etc.  

Concepts: conceptual structures, graphs; conceptual thinking (e.g., strategic games, chess); mental patterns  

Possible divisions: verbal/nonverbal/symbolic, codes of ancient origin/ sign systems based on limited consensus  

Decodability, decipherability: a common code for the parties is essential for communication to take place 

Channel  

(…) of communication can be direct (verbal, non-verbal and symbolic channels) or indirect (mediated by various means of communication, e.g., telephone line, book, internet etc.)  

(….) of communication can be spatial, without delay (telephone cable) or temporal, delayed (videocassette); natural (nerve fiber) or artificial (cable); analog (air carrying sound waves) or digital (computer data transmission channels)  

The process can be one-way (e.g., instruction) or two-way (e.g., conversation), direct (primary, face-to-face communication) or indirect (secondary, takes place through some technical or other mediating means)  

Tertiary communication: both the sender and the receiver use some media channel

Message

Information: tangible change in the plane of time that differs from the usual  

News: new, processed information that may be of public interest  

Text: an opinion, an argument and the most objectified and conventionalized moment of communication - collective term for the communication content appearing in the form of live speech, writing or other symbol systems 

Situation and context  

The human and social relationship manifested and expressed in the communication  

They determine the social framework in terms of the qualification of the relationship  

The (….) can be subordinate or superior, equal, intimate or public  

The framework of the (…) is formed by norms which thus shape the meaning of the message  

The (…) is thus placed in a wider cultural and social context  

Knowledge of the (…) forms a common evidence base - reference to the (…) is characteristic of all human communication and a pivotal element of speech 

Recipient

Variables that can be taken into account:  

• the image of the communicator,  

• an image of the communicator's intention,  

• the image of the situation and the context,  

• decoding ability: interpretation and evaluation at the same time 

Efficiency

Feedback is a tester of (…) 

 Refers to feedback systems that more or less automatically conveys the correctness or effectiveness of an action  

Noise

channel noise (internal noise): e.g., you cannot hear somebody's speech because his mouth is full,  

• environmental noise (external noise): e.g., loud noises,  

• communication noise: misunderstanding due to the lack of a common code 

Interpersonal communication disorders

WHAT WORKS WILL BREAK, BUT AT LEAST IT CAN BREAK  

1) Temporary  

2) Permanent  

3) Systematic  

THE DISTURBING EVENT DEGRADES THE COMMUNICATION PERFORMANCE

Some communication misunderstandings

Not all communication seeks understanding

Communication will not solve all problems

More communication is not always better

Effective communication is not a natural ability

Symbolic Interactionism 

Communication = (…)

through which we create our thoughts, self-concept, and the wider community we live in (…) is the language and gestures a person uses in anticipation of the way others will respond 

Three core principles: meaning, language, and thinking 

MEANING

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIAL REALITY 

We act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things 

Key: interpretation 

LANGUAGE

THE SOURCE OF MEANING 

Meaning is not inherent in objects, but it is negotiated through the use of language 

Symbols are arbitrary signs e.g., the word "kitten"

THINKING

THE PROCESS OF TAKING THE ROLE OF THE OTHER  is inner conversation (minding) through which we anticipate others' reactions, sort out the meaning of situations 

Humans are capable of taking the role of others -(…..) is the mental conversation we hold with others as we imagine how we look to another person - The “me” is formed through continual symbolic interaction 

PYGMALION EFFECT 

This refers to the psychological phenomenon where higher expectations placed upon individuals lead to improved performance in a given area. This effect is based on the belief that if others expect us to do well, we are more likely to succeed due to increased confidence, motivation, and effort. 

Rosenthal & Jacobson

how teachers' expectations of their students affect the students' performance Targets of the expectations internalize those labels and behave accordingly 

Expectancy Violations Theory

by Judee Burgoon

Personal space: “space surrounding an individual that defines that individual’s preferred distance from others”  
Under some circumstances, violating social norms and personal expectations is a superior strategy - potential outcomes: attraction, influence, involvement  

 

Communicator reward valence

the sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the encounter plus the potential to reward or punish in the future When shall we communicate in an unexpected way? If you’re certain that the novelty will be a pleasant surprise 

Social Penetration Theory  

by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor

The process of developing deeper intimacy with another person through mutual self-disclosure  
Comparing people to onions  
 
Peel the outer skin from an onion, and you’ll find another beneath it  
Deeper layers are more vulnerable, protected, and central to self-image  
To get to the center, the wedge must first separate the outer layers 

The depth of (…) is the degree of intimacy

Uncertainty Reduction Theory  

by Charles Berger  

 Theory focuses on how people aim to reduce uncertainty about others when they first meet. This theory suggests that as uncertainty decreases, communication and relationship development increase. 

Purpose: theory helps us comprehend the strategies people use to get to know each other in initial interactions. It provides insights into how communication patterns change as relationships progress and uncertainty diminishes. 

We always begin as strangers.... it’s natural to have doubts about our ability to predict the outcome of initial encounters  

8 axioms

(self-evident truths that require no additional proof):  

• Verbal communication  

• Nonverbal warmth  

• Information seeking  

• Self-disclosure  

• Reciprocity  

• Similarity  

• Liking  

• Shared networks 

Transactional Analysis

by Eric Berne  

 Theory: This is a psychological theory that examines human interactions and relationships. It categorizes interactions into three ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child, helping to analyze and improve communication and understanding between individuals. 

Purpose: This is used in counseling, therapy, and communication training. It helps individuals recognize patterns in their interactions and promotes healthier communication, leading to better relationships both personally and professionally. 

Imagined Interactions Theory (IIT)

by James M. Honeycutt  

 Theory: This Theory explores how individuals mentally simulate conversations and interactions in their minds. People imagine scenarios, rehearse conversations or anticipate how others might respond. 

Purpose: This theory aids in understanding how individuals prepare for real-life interactions. It has implications in various fields such as communication studies, psychology, and conflict resolution, offering insights into the cognitive processes underlying social interactions.

Six basic functions of IIT

• maintaining relationships,  

• linking or managing conflict,  

• rehearsing messages,  

• self-understanding through clarifying thoughts and feelings,  

• providing emotional catharsis by relieving tension,  

• and compensating for lack of real interaction  

Culture

"the language, values, beliefs, traditions, and customs people share and learn” (Samovar et al., 2007)

A matter of perception and definition

recognize yourself and others as sharing/not sharing certain characteristics

in-groups

groups with whom we identify

out-groups

groups who we view as different

Co-culture

the perception of membership in a group that is part of an encompassing culture

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

the process that occurs when members of two or more cultures or co-cultures exchange messages in a manner that is influenced by their different cultural perceptions and symbol systems

SPECTRUM OF "INTERCULTURALNESS”

Most intercultural, Least intercultural

Most intercultural

communicators have highly different backgrounds or beliefs

Least intercultural

exchanges in which cultural differences are not significant

High-context culture

• It relies heavily on subtle, often nonverbal cues to maintain social harmony; communicators pay close attention to nonverbal behaviours, the history of relationships, and social rules 

• more emoticons and less self-disclosure in online communication 

Low-context culture

• It uses language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible; meaning of a statement lies in the words spoken; might grow impatient with indirect behaviours such as hinting 

• more competitive and dominating conflict styles 

Individualistic culture

It´s primary responsibility is to help themselves; characterized by self-reliance and competition; tend to view themselves in terms of what they do; aim to raise children to gain autonomy and independence 

Collectivistic culture

It feels loyalties and obligations to in-groups; attentive to and concerned with the opinions of others; tend to define themselves in terms of group membership; aim to raise children as respectful members of society 

Low power distance

belief in minimizing distinctions between various social classes; support the notion that challenging authority is acceptable; members aren’t necessarily punished for raising questions about the status quo 

High power distance

children are expected to obey their parents and other authority figures; employees have much less input into the way they perform their work 

High uncertainty avoidance

deviant people and ideas are generally considered dangerous; intolerance and ethnocentrism might be present; concerned with security, strong need for clear rules and regulations 

Low uncertainty avoidance

less threatened by change and ambiguity; more likely to tolerate—or even welcome—people who don’t fit the norm 

Masculine societies

preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success; society at large is more competitive; quantity is important and big is beautiful 

Feminine societies

preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life; society at large is more consensus-oriented; genders are emotionally closer to each other 

Long-term orientation

the world is in flux, and preparing for the future is always needed; encourages efforts in modern education

Short-term orientation

the world is as it was created, the past provides a moral compass, and adhering to it is morally good; change is viewed with suspicion 

Indulgent culture

gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun; life makes sense; freedom over duty 

Restrained culture

suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms; life feels hard; duty over freedom

VERBAL CODES 

Language and identity, Verbal communication styles 

Verbal communication styles 

• Direct versus indirect

• Elaborate versus succinct

• Formal versus informal

Code-switching 

Communicators often adapt their manner of speaking when they change contexts to increase the chances of achieving their goals 

(…) aren’t “right” or “wrong”; they’re simply reflections of different cultures 

Codes and culture 

VERBAL CODES , Code-switching, NONVERBAL CODES 

NONVERBAL CODES 

Many elements of nonverbal communication are shared by all humans, regardless of culture, e.g., people of all cultures convey messages through facial expressions and gestures 

Crying is a universal sign of unhappiness or pain, and smiles signal friendly intentions 

Important qualities, ingredients of intercultural communicative competence 

MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDE, TOLERANCE FOR AMBIGUITY, OPEN-MINDEDNESS, KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS, PATIENCE AND PERSISTENCE  

In the linear communication model:

The focus is on the sender and the message, with little emphasis on the receiver's role.

What are the 3 signifiers (types of signs) when it comes to the semiotic tradition?

icon, symbol, index

Semantic noise in communication refers to

misunderstanding of words/symbols by one of the participants

What is the main difference between the phenomenological and critical tradition?

Their objective-subjective nature

On what principle(s) is the phenomenological tradition of communication based that it denies freeze-frame research?

The phenomenological tradition is based on the understanding communication that emphasizes the subjective experiences

What are the main keywords of the socio-cultural tradition?

society, language, culture