Reformation

How did a lightning strike change Martin Luther’s life?

Surviving it terrified him into fearing God’s judgment, prompting his decision to become a monk instead of a lawyer.

What profession did Luther’s father want him to pursue?

Law; his father pressured him, but Luther chose monastic life after the lightning incident.

What personal struggles did Luther face as a monk?

Deep anxiety and fear of sin, which drove him to rigorous religious practices and intense Bible study.

What issues did Luther question through Bible study?

Papal authority, sale of indulgences, and the belief that good deeds are needed for salvation.

Why is the lightning imagery significant in Luther’s story?

Symbolizes the pivotal moment redirecting him from law to monasticism, sparking his later reforms.

Who was John Tetzel and why was he controversial?

A friar selling indulgences in Wittenberg, claiming money could free souls from purgatory, funding St. Peter’s Cathedral.

What slogan summarized Tetzel’s indulgence campaign?

“As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs.”

How did Luther challenge indulgences in the 95 Theses?

Argued salvation comes through faith, not money; questioned papal authority to grant forgiveness.

How did technology aid the Reformation?

The printing press rapidly spread Luther’s 95 Theses across Europe, fueling debate and dissent.

Who supported Luther during the indulgence controversy?

Elector Frederick III, providing political protection and legitimacy.

What was the Leipzig Debate about?

Luther debated Johann Eck, denying papal infallibility and defending Jan Hus’s condemnation as unjust.

What was the result of the Leipzig Debate?

Pope Leo X issued a bull of excommunication; Luther was formally cut off from the Church.

Did Luther intend to break from the Church in 1520?

No; he sought reform, not a split, at this stage.

What stance did Luther take at the Diet of Worms?

Refused to recant: “I cannot and will not recant anything,” asserting conscience and Scripture over Church authority.

Who presided over the Diet of Worms?

Emperor Charles V, aiming to maintain political and religious stability.

What was Luther’s fate after the Diet?

Declared heretic and outlawed; Frederick III secretly protected him from execution.

What is sola fide?

Lutheran belief in salvation by faith alone, rejecting Catholic emphasis on works.

How does Lutheranism view the Bible?

Scripture is the sole authority for faith and practice.

What does “universal priesthood” mean in Lutheranism?

All vocations, including women, can serve God; church hierarchy is less central.

Lutheran vs Catholic view on salvation?

Faith alone vs faith + works; demonstrates doctrinal shift in Reformation.

Where did Lutheranism spread fastest?

Northern German states and Scandinavia, aided by sympathetic princes.

Why did princes support Lutheranism?

To reduce papal control and claim church lands for political and economic gain.

How did humanism influence Lutheranism?

Encouraged individual reasoning and direct engagement with Scripture, bypassing clergy.

What did the Peace of Augsburg establish?

Cuius regio, eius religio: rulers determined their state’s religion, formalizing religious coexistence.

What were the Twelve Articles?

Peasant demands for social reform and an end to feudal oppression.

How did Luther respond to the peasants’ revolt?

Urged obedience to secular rulers; condemned rebellion to maintain Christian order.

Outcome of the Peasants’ War?

~100,000 peasants killed; revolt crushed by Catholic and Lutheran forces.

Core Anabaptist beliefs?

Adult baptism, separation of church and state, faith expressed through good works, pacifism.

Founder of Zwinglianism?

Ulrich Zwingli; led Zurich Reformation emphasizing scripture alone.

Zwingli’s Eucharist view?

Symbolic memorial; bread and wine represent Christ, no physical presence.

Calvin’s key doctrine?

Predestination; God chooses some for salvation and others for damnation.

Calvinism’s social impact?

Strict Geneva theocracy; promoted moral discipline and appealed to merchants.

Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy (1534)?

Declared him head of the Church of England, ending papal authority.

Why did Henry VIII break from Rome?

Papal refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; political and dynastic motives.

Changes under Edward VI?

Protestant reforms: clergy marriage, removal of icons, Book of Common Prayer, faith alone.

Mary I’s religious policy?

Re-imposed Catholicism; executed ~300 dissenters including Cranmer.

Elizabeth I’s religious approach?

Elizabethan Settlement: moderate Protestantism, English services, clergy restrictions, mandatory attendance.

Purpose of Council of Trent?

Catholic reform: limit simony, educate clergy, reaffirm sacraments, counter Protestantism.

Index of Prohibited Books (1559)?

Listed works considered heretical, including Luther and Calvin.

Role of Baroque art in Counter-Reformation?

Evoked religious emotion and reinforced Catholic doctrine visually.

Jesuits’ mission?

Global missionary work, education, and defending Catholicism against Protestantism.

Ignatius Loyola’s contribution?

Founded Jesuits; wrote Spiritual Exercises emphasizing obedience and discipline.

Protestant view on women?

Limited public roles; household became central to religious practice.

Catholic response for women?

Ursuline and Carmelite orders promoted female education and spiritual leadership.

Impact of Reformation on households?

Home became primary site of worship; less clerical mediation.

Notable Catholic women reformers?

Angela Merici (Ursulines) and Teresa de Ávila (convent reforms).

Eucharist differences: Catholic vs Lutheran?

Transubstantiation (actual body/blood) vs Consubstantiation (Christ present in elements).

Zwinglian vs Calvinist Eucharist?

Symbolic vs spiritual presence received by faith.

Anglican Eucharist?

Retains some Catholic elements; king as church head.

Church-State: Calvinist vs Anglican?

Theocracy vs monarch-led church.

Baptism practices?

Catholic: infant; Lutheran: infant & believer; Calvinist/Zwingli: believer; Anglican: infant.

Authority differences?

Catholic: Pope/tradition; Lutheran: Scripture + confession; Zwingli/Calvin: Scripture alone; Anglican: monarch + Scripture.

What was the first major split of Christianity?

1054 Split (Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church) (Catholic was biggest) (west vs east)