Y9 Unit 1: Psychology (definitions, the nervous system, neurons, etc.)

Psychology

The systematic study of mind (mental processes) and behaviours. Based on three processes; gathering of factual information, forming theories to explain these facts, testing these theories.

Goal of psychology

To describe, explain, and predict behaviours and mental processes within people, using the scientific method (a set of procedures for collecting interpreting data).

Behaviour

Term which refers to any observable action made by a living person e.g. walking, talking, and blinking.

Mental processes

Term which refers to an individual's thoughts and feelings that are personal and cannot be directly observed.

Branches of psychology

Includes clinical, neuro, counselling, health, community, general, forensic, organisational, developmental, educational, and sports psychology.

Clinical psychologist

A psychologist who diagnoses and treats people with emotional disturbances. Usually work in hospitals, community mental health services, and in private counselling rooms. Work with individuals, families, or groups.

Neuropsychologist

A psychologist who studies how the brain affects cognition, emotion, and behaviour. Usually work in research/ clinical settings. Work with people who have brain disorders that affect memory, learning, attention, reading, problem solving, and decision making.

Counselling psychologist

A psychologist who specialises in the treatment of milder emotional, psychological, stress-related, and behavioural disturbances. Work in hospitals, health centres, rehab centres, schools etc. Usually work with clients who have mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety.

Developmental psychologist

A psychologist who studies the emotional, cognitive, biological, personal, and social changes that occur as an individual matures, from conception to death. Work in governmental agencies, schools, and health care facilities. Usually work with children, parents, carers and teachers to help them understand issues a child may experience.

Forensic psychologist

A psychologist who applies psychology to law and legal proceedings. Work in courtrooms, hospitals, mental health clinics, research institutions etc. Typically work alongside legal professionals, crime victims, and criminals themselves.

Health psychologist

A psychologist who studies the interaction between physical and psychological health factors. Usually work in hospitals, eating disorder clinics, weight clinics, chronic disease clinics, health rehabilitation services etc. Often help people deal with the psychological and emotional aspects of health and illness as well as supporting those who are chronically ill.

Organisational psychologist

A psychologist who looks at ways to best use workplaces, in terms of team dynamics, communication, work output and performance. Hired by companies, the government and other employers. Work with employees to help develop recruitment tools, training programs, skills, and behavioural programs.

Sports psychologist

A psychologist who works with athletes to recover from serious injury through emotional support. They also study how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. Work in hospitals, physical rehabilitation centers, and gyms. Usually work with athletes and coaches.

Community psychologist

A psychologist who assesses social, cultural, economic, political, environmental, and international risks and influences on community to promote positive change. Usually work in a mental health or social welfare agency. Work with migrant groups, and rural and remote communities.

Educational psychologist

A psychologist who focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place in educational settings. Work in schools, colleges, nurseries and special units, with teachers and parents.

Psychologists

Scientists who study behaviour and mental processes through assessment. Work in health care, aged care, hospitals, schools (essentially anywhere). 4 year bachelor of psychology needed.

Psychiatrists

Specialists who focus on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and severe mental health conditions. Work only in medical-based areas e.g. private/ public hospitals. Bachelors (4 years), and doctorate (4 years) needed.

Social workers

Health professionals who support people in times of crises, primarily in the form of counselling. Much broader range of issues, dealing with any and all social, behavioural, economic, or health problems a client may face. Work in community development corporations, mental health clinics, schools etc. 'More holistic approach'. Degree in social work needed (supposedly 4 years).

The nervous system

The body's electrochemical communication network, which works to coordinate our actions, reflexes, and sensations, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Located within the skull (brain) and spine (spinal chord).

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Located outside the skull and spine. Connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body.

Sensory (afferent) nerves

Nerves that carry sensory information/ impulses from receptors in the PNS (e.g. skin, skeletal muscles, glands, and organs) to the CNS

Motor (efferent) nerves

Nerves that carry impulses from CNS to effectors and organs.

Interneurons

Neurons within the CNS that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs (generally do not possess a myelin sheath).

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

One of the sub-divisions of the PNS that controls the body's voluntary movement via skeletal muscles and interactions with the external environment. Consists of both sensory and motor neurons.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

One of the sub-divisions of the PNS that controls involuntary movement and regulates the body's internal environment, e.g. regulates blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal. Sends motor impulses to the visceral organs without conscious effort.

Sympathetic nervous system

One of two divisions of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilising it's energy in stressful situations (fight or flight). Non-adrenaline is released, activating this acute response in case of imminent danger or mental distress.

Para-sympathetic nervous system

One of two divisions of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy. It slows our heart and breathing rates, lowers blood pressure and promotes digestion. Acetylcholine activates an inhibitory response, and the body enters a state of relaxation, often referred to as a 'rest and digest' state.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information electrochemically around the body. Information is transmitted electrically within a neutron, and chemically through synapses between neurons.

Structure of a neutron consists of..

Dendrites, nucleus, soma, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminals.

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialised to receive information from other neurons, which they carry from the synapses to the soma.

Nucleus

Control center of the cell. Contains DNA.

Soma

Cell body of a neuron: controls the metabolism and maintenance.

Axon

Long fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

A white layer of fatty insulation segmentally encasing the fibres of the axon; enables faster transmission of neural impulses along the axon.

Axon terminals

Branches at the end of the axon that contain tiny pouches, or sacs, called synaptic vesicles. Have terminal buttons that secrete neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft.

Neuron plasticity

The ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganisation. Dendrites grow to increase the area for synapses to be created as more is learnt and memorised -- a stimulated mind helps grow more dendrites.

Synapse

The small gap between the axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron and the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

Neurotransmitters

The body's natural chemical messengers, sending information from one neuron to the next.

Excitatory neutrotransmitters

Neurotransmitters which increase the likelihood of a message being sent along to the next neuron.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters which decrease or diminish the likelihood of a message being sent to the next neuron.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter; increases neural activity and is involved in learning and memory. High levels can be toxic, causing seizures, strokes, and other nervous system disorders, while low levels may interfere with your ability to learn and focus.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter; dampens neural activity and helps to regulate mood and anxiety. High levels have a calming effect, while low levels have been correlated to depression, anxiety, panic attacks, and insomnia.

Cerebrum

Largest and most recognisable part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.

Cerebral cortex

Outer region of the cerebrum, containing sheets of nerve cells; grey matter of the brain. Responsible for receiving information from the environment, controlling our responses, higher order thinking and storing specific long-term memories.

Gyri

Bulges in the cerebral cortex.

Sulci

Valleys in the cerebral cortex.

Fissures

Deep valleys in the brain, which divide the brain into parts.

Longitudinal fissure

Fissure separating left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Central fissure

Fissure separating frontal lobe from parietal lobe.

Lateral fissure

Fissure separating frontal and parietal lobes from temporal lobe.

The frontal lobe

The lobe at the front of the brain. Plays an important role in executive functions (planning, problem solving, decision making, attention), memory (!!) voluntary motor functions, language production, controlling impulsive behaviour and regulating emotion.

Damage to the frontal lobe

Damage to this lobe may result in a loss of executive function, personality changes (Phineas Gage), and effects on language production.

The parietal lobe: primary sensory cortex (PSC)

The lobe located behind the frontal lobes in the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Plays an important role in receiving sensory information (hot, cold, touch, pain) from various parts of the body and proprioception (the body's ability to sense movement, action and location) which tells us which way is up and keeps us from bumping into things.

Damage to the parietal lobe

Damage to this lobe may result in an inability to locate parts of your body, or recognise parts of your body.

The occipital lobe

The lobe located at the back of the head in the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Plays an important role in receiving and processing visual information, and contains areas that help in perceiving shapes and colours.

Damage to the occipital lobe

Damage to this lobe may result in visual field defects and distorted perceptions of size, colour, and shape.

The temporal lobe

Lobe of the brain located on the sides of the brain at about the level of the ears. Plays an important role in recognising and processing sound, recognising and understanding language and various aspects of memory (episodic memory, conscious recollection of a personal experience).

Damage to the temporal lobe

Damage to this lobe may result in hearing loss, language comprehension problems, and sensory problems (e.g. inability to recognise a familiar persons face).

The hippocampus

This brain structure is located in the medial temporal lobe. Plays an important role in memory formation (by encoding memories for the cerebral cortex to store), spatial navigation and storage of episodic memory.

Damage to the hippocampus

Damage to this brain structure may result in loss of memory (retrograde amnesia), inability to create new memories (anterograde amnesia), effects on mood, confusion, and disorientation.

The amygdala

This brain structure is located in the medial temporal lobe. Plays an important role in formation and storage of memories related to emotional events (particularly fear), and helps recognise fear.

Damage to the amygdala

Damage to this brain structure may effect memory formation, emotional sensitivity, learning and retention, fear response and potentially cause depression and anxiety.

The cerebellum

This brain structure is located at the rear base of the brain, sometimes referred to as the 'little brain'. Plays an important role in the coordination of our sensations with responses from our muscles, enabling most of our voluntary movements, helping us maintain balance and posture, and the formation and storage of procedural memories (a type of long-term memory which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious recollection).

Phrenology

The detailed study of the shape and size of the skull as an indication of character and mental abilities. Referred to today as 'pseudoscience', as it did not rely on scientific processes. Prevalent in the 1800's.

Lobotomy

A form of neurosurgical treatment of a mental disorder in which the nerves forming connections in the brain's prefrontal cortex are severed. Often used to treat psychiatric conditions in the 1900's. However, there were many serious side effects, usually involving severe brain damage.

Neuroimaging

The process of creating images of brain structures or brain activity.

Main methods of neuroimaging

Includes: computerised tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET).

Computerised tomography (CT)

A neuroimaging technique that combines a series of X-ray images taken from different angles of the body and uses computer processing to create cross-sectional images of the bones, blood vessels and soft tissues inside the body.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A neuroimaging technique using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain. Provides an anatomical view. Can provide better pictures of organs and soft tissues compared to CT scans.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A neuroimaging technique that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance introduced into the bloodstream. When the radioactive substance reaches the brain, it accumulates in areas that are metabolically active -- radioactive material breaks down, triggering release and detection of gamma rays. Provides scientists with an idea of the function of the brain.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain's blood flow and oxygen levels. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region also increases. This provides both an anatomical and functional view of the brain.

Structural neuroimaging

Type of neuroimaging technique that refers to the visualisation and analysis of anatomical properties of the brain, particularly useful for detecting brain damage and abnormalities.

Functional neuroimaging

Type of neuroimaging technique that provides an indication of brain activity but not high anatomical detail, used to try. understand the relationship between activity in certain brain areas and specific mental functions.

Brain disorders

Any condition or disability marked by disruption of the normal functioning of the brain. Tend to be categorised into: mental disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and brain injury.

Mental disorders

Refers to a wide range of conditions that affect your mood, thinking, and behaviour. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders, and addictive behaviours.

Dementia

A term used for a set of disorders that are directly related to changes in the brain which are the result of degeneration over time and are not the direct result of brain injury or trauma.

Neurodegenerative disease

Incurable and debilitating diseases that result in progressive degeneration and/or death of nerve cells. This causes problems with movement, mental functioning, and affect a person's ability to move, speak, and breathe.

Brain injury

Refers to any brain damage that occurs after birth. They can result in deterioration in cognitive, physical, emotional, or independent functioning. Can be a result of accidents, stroke, tumours, infection, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Traumatic brain injury

An alteration in brain function, or other evidence of brain pathology, caused by an external force. Can be defined as closed (non-penetrating) or open (penetrating). Examples include: falls, assaults, motor vehicle accidents etc.

Non-traumatic brain injury

An acquired brain injury, they cause damage to the brain by internal factors such as a lack of oxygen, exposure to toxins, pressure from a tumour, etc. Examples include stroke, aneurysm, tumour, etc.

Stroke

Occurs when blood supply to the brain is interrupted or reduced. Brain cells that don't get enough oxygen and nutrients begin to die in minutes.

Cerebral haemorrhage

This type of stroke is most commonly defined by bleeding in the brain which occurs when a blood vessels ruptures (direct cause of a brain aneurysm), causing localised bleeding in the surrounding tissues.

Ischemia

This type of stroke is caused by a blockage (a blood clot) in an artery that supplies blood to the brain. The blockage reduces the blood flow and oxygen to the brain, leading to damage or death of brain cells.

Infarct

The area of dead or dying tissue caused by a stroke.

Stroke-related lifestyle behaviours

Smoking, stress, high BP, diabetes, heart disease, alcohol, obesity, high blood cholesterol etc.

Signs of stroke

Facial drooping, arm weakness, speech difficulties, sudden vision problems, loss of balance or problems with coordination.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disease, in which people become forgetful and confused, usually starting in an older age. Involves the irreversible deterioration of brain tissue, starting in the hippocampus (which plays an important role in memory).

Cause of Alzheimer's

The abnormal twisting of 'tau' protein strands, causing the formation of tangles. These tangles block the neuron's transport system, which harm the synaptic communication between neurons and eventually result in the death of brain cells. Smaller proteins also fold in an erratic manner and create plaques that build up and block regular brain function.

Neurotransmitters of AD

Acetylcholine (ACh) and glutamate: individuals with this disease have low levels of ACh (essential for learning and encoding memories in the hippocampus), and an excess amount of glutamate (overstimulates healthy brain cells, causing them to become damaged or to die).

Signs of Alzheimer's

Memory loss, difficulty completing basic tasks, confusion, communication difficulties, misplacing belongings, changed in mood, confusion regarding time and place etc.

Parkinson's disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects voluntary motor function. Main symptoms include resting tremors, stiffness, slowness of movement, and impaired balance.

Cause of Parkinson's

The basal ganglia, a cluster of nuclei in the medial brain, that controls goal-directed behaviour is damaged by this disease. Associated with a decline in the neurotransmitter dopamine, the main neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia.

Neurotransmitters of PD

Dopamine and noradrenaline: individuals with this disease have low levels of dopamine (produces tremors and such: due to reduced production of dopamine in the basal ganglia as a assistant for effective movement) and low levels of noradrenaline (low blood pressure).

Social influence

Term which refers to the ways people alter the attitudes or behaviour of others. As such, we are all products of the relationships, groups, cultures, and societies we belong to.

Conformity

Refers to a change in attitude or behaviour to match the perceived norm due to group pressure (real or imagined) e.g. dressing the same as your friends.

Obedience

Refers to an individual's response to a command from an authority figure. Recipient is reluctant to engage in behaviour and probably wouldn't without the command.

Normative social influence

A person's desire to gain group approval and avoid group disapproval. 'Going along in order to be liked'.

Informative social influence

A person's willingness to accept others' opinions regarding reality. 'Going along in order to be 'right".

Stereotypes

Generalised beliefs about groups that form because of cultural influences and confirmation bias. Stereotyping creates mental shortcuts, which positively reduce cognitive load and make decision making more efficient, but negatively, make us ignore the differences between individuals.