UHSP Pharmacy Technician Training Module 3 - Basic Anatomy and Physiology

Anterior

Front of the body

Posterior

Back of the body

Superior

Above or toward the head

Inferior

Below or toward the feet

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment

Superficial

Toward the surface

Deep

Away from the surface

Axial skeleton

Skull, vertebral column, rib cage

Appendicular Skeleton

Limbs and girdles

Epiphysis

End of a long bone

Diaphysis

Shaft of a long bone

Articular Cartilage

Covers the joint surfaces of bones

Synovial Joints

Freely movable

Cartilaginous Joints

Slight movable

Fibrous Joints

Immobile

Flexion

Decreasing the angle between bones

Extension

Increasing the angle between bones

Abduction (skeletal system)

Movement away from the midline

Adduction

Movement toward the midline

Bones are made up of…

Cortical bone (Dense outer layer) and trabecular bone (spongy inner layer)

Synovial joints

Freely movable joints

Ball-and-socket joints

Joints with a wide range of motion

Skeletal muscles

Voluntary muscles attached to bones, enabling movement (e.g. biceps and quadriceps)

Smooth muscles

Involuntary muscles found in organs like the intestines and blood vessels

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscled found only in the heart and responsible for its pumping action

Flexor

Muscle that bends a joint

Extensor

Muscle that straightens a joint

Abductor

Muscle that moves a body part away from the midline

Adductor

Muscle that moves a body part toward the midline

Muscle Attachments

Origin: Attachment site with less movement during contraction

Insertion: Attachment site with more movement during contraction

Three key functions of the musculoskeletal system

• Support and Protection: Bones provide structure and guard vital organs

• Movement: Muscles contract and relax, causing bones to move at joints

• Blood Cell Formation: Bone marrow produces red and white blood cells

Osteoporosis

A condition characterized by decreased bone density, increasing the risk of fractures

Arthritis

Inflammation or one or more joints, causing pain, stiffness, and swelling. Common types include osteoarthritis (wear-and-tear) and rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune disease)

Muscle strains and sprains

Overstretching or tearing of muscles or ligaments, respectively, causing pain and limited movement

Tendonitis

Inflammation of a tendon, causing pain and tenderness at the site of inflammation

Chambers (heart)

The heart features four chambers

• he atria (upper chambers) receive blood

• The ventricles (lower chambers) pump blood out. The synchronization of these chambers ensures efficient blood circulation

Aorta

Main artery carrying oxygenated blood from the heart

Valves

Tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral), pulmonary, and aortic valves regulate blood flow, preventing backflow and ensuring unidirectional movement

Arteries

Carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart

Veins

Return oxygen-poor blood to the heart

Capillaries

Tiny vessels where oxygen and nutrients exchange with tissues

Pulse

Rhythmic throbbing of arteries due to the heartbeat

Red blood cells

Carry oxygen throughout the body using hemoglobin (a protein)

• Low levels of RBCs or hemoglobin can indicate anemia, which some medications can affect

Hemoglobin

Oxygen-carrying protein. The protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen. Understanding hemoglobin levels is crucial as they can be affected by certain medications like iron supplements or erythropoietin (EPO) used to treat anemia

White blood cells

Also called immune system defenders, they fight infection

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Help with blood clotting

Plasma

• The liquid portion of the blood that carries various components throughout the body

• Knowing the composition of plasma is important for interpreting medication labels, as some medications might be administered intravenously (IV) and directly enter the bloodstream through the plasma

Blood circulation

Ensures delivery of oxygen and nutrients, following a specific path: right atrium —> lungs —> left atrium —> body

• Delivers oxygen and nutrients to all body parts continuously

• Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood, pumps to the lungs

• Left atrium receives oxygenated blood, pumps to the body

Heartbeat

The heart’s regular rhythm of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole)

Blood pressure

The force of blood pushing against artery walls

• Measured as systolic (higher number) over diastolic (lower number pressure)

Hypertension (high blood pressure)

Increases risk of heart disease and stroke

Myocardial infarction (heart attack)

Occurs when blood flow to the heart is blocked, damaging heart muscle

Atherosclerosis

The buildup of plaque in arteries, narrowing and hardening them

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

• Primary processing center - interprets sensory information and sends out responses

• Brain: acts as the control center, with different lobes responsible for various functions

• Spinal cord: facilitates communication between the brain and PNS, also hosting reflex actions

Peripheral Nervous System

Network of nerves that extends from the CNS to the entire body, facilitating communication between the brain/spinal cord and other areas. Divided into the sensory (afferent) nerves, which send info to the CNS, and the motor (efferent) nerves, which receive commands from the CNS

• Nerves: Carry signals throughout the body

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary actions like heartbeat and digestion

• Somatic Nervous System: Manages voluntary movements and sensory information

Brain

Divided into various lobes, eash with specific functions

• Front lobe is crucial for decision-making and voluntary movement

• Occipital lobe processes visual information

Spinal Cord

Acts as a conduit for signals between the brain and the body and is involved in reflex actions

• Reflexes (ex: hand pulling away from a hot surface) are processed directly in the spinal cord without involving the brain, allowing for quicker responses

Nerves

Serve as communication lines, carrying electrical signals across the body

Automatic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions (like heartbeat and digestion)

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary actions (such as walking and using your hands)

Neuron structure

Neurons have a cell body (soma), dendrites (which receive signals), and an axon (which sends signals)

• The myelin sheath, a fatty layer around some axons, speeds up signal transmission

Types and functions of neurons

Sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptors to the CNS, motor neurons transmit commands from the CNS to muscles, and interneurons connect neurons within the CNS

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals of one neuron and cross the synapse (the gap between neurons) to bind to receptors on the next neuron, transmitting the signal

• Acetylcholine is involved in muscle movement and memory, serotonin affects mood and sleep, and dopamine plays a role in reward and motivation

Sensory vs Motor functions

Sensory functions include seeing (via the optic nerve) and feeling (through skin receptors). Motor functions involve actions like speaking, which uses motor neurons to control the vocal cords and mouth

Stroke

Occurs when blood flow to a part of the brain is interrupted, leading to tissue damage and loss of function in the affected area

Epilepsy

A disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked bu memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes

Examples of medications affecting the nervous system

Analgesics (pain relievers) like acetaminophen, anticonvulsants for epilepsy, and psychotropics for mental health conditions

Upper Respiratory Tract

Comprises the nose and nasal cavity, which filter, humidify, and warm incoming air, preparing it for the lungs. The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity, while turbinates increase the surface area for air filtration and warming

Lower Respiratory Tract

Includes the pharynx, larynx (housing the vocal cords)m trachea (windpipe), bronchi (leading into each lung), and the bronchial tree (branching into bronchioles and culminating in the alveoli

Alveoli

The site of gas exchange. Tiny air sacs where oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide is released from the blood into the lungs to be exhaled. This exchange is facilitated by the thin walls of alveoli and the dense capillary network surrounding them

Pulmonary Ventilation

Inspiration (inhalation): Air is drawn into the lungs, primarily by the diaphragm’s downward movement, which decreases pressure in the chest cavity

Expiration (exhalation): Air is expelled from the lungs, occurring passively during rest but actively during exercise through the upward movement of the diaphragm and contraction of chest muscles. increasing chest cavity pressure

Gas Exchange and Regulation

Gas Exchange: Oxygen is transported to body tissues while carbon dioxide is carried away from tissues to the lungs for elimination

Regulation: Breathing rate and depth are regulated by the respiratory center in the brain, responding to changes in blood CO2 levels, oxygen demand, and pH balance

Bronchodilators

Relax the muscles and improve airflow (e.g. albuterol for asthma)

Corticosteroids

Reduce inflammation in the airways (e.g. fluticasone for COPD)

Decongestants

Relieve nasal congestion by narrowing blood vessels in the nose (e.g. pseudoephendrine)

Pituitary Gland (master gland)

Controls other endocrine glands

Thyroid Gland

Regulates metabolism, growth, and energy production

• Hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Pancreas

Plays a crucial role in blood sugar regulation by producing insulin and glucagon

• Cells: Islets of Langerhans are responsible for hormone production

Hormone Production

Glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions

Metabolism Regulation

Thyroid hormones are critical in determining metabolic rate and energy levels

Blood Sugar Regulation

The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon to maintain glucose levels, crucial for energy production

Lymphatic system

A network including lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, and lymph that helps in filtering and transporting lymph throughout the body, trapping pathogens

Bone marrow

The primary site of new blood cell production, including white blood cells crucial for immune responses

Thymus Gland

Essential for T cell development, a type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity