EXAM 5

What is hematology

study of blood and blood forming tissues and the disorders associated with them

What are the three functions of blood

1. transportation: (oxygen, co2, nutrients, waste, hormones)
2. regulation: (pH, body temp, water content of cells)
3. protection: (blood loss, foreign microbes, toxins)

What are the two components of blood?

plasma: liquid matter of blood
formed elements: blood cells and cell fragments

How much blood do males have

4-6L

How much blood do females have

4-5 liters

What is hypovolemic

low blood volume

What is normovolemic

normal blood volume

What is hypervolemic

high blood volume

What is the pH of blood?

7.35-7.45, it is a buffered solution meaning it resists changes of pH

What percent of blood is plasma

55%

What does plasma consist of

92% water
7% proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, regulatory proteins)
1% other solutes (electrolytes, organic nutrients, organic waste)

What is the difference between plasma and interstitial fluid

plasma has more oxygen, more protein and less carbon dioxide

What are the 3 protein classes in plasma

albumins, globulins, fibrinogens

What are albumins?

60% smallest of the plasma proteins. they contribute to osmotic pressure of plasma, and they transport fatty acids and steroid hormones.

What are globulins?

35%. there are 2 major types
A. Immunoglobulins: attack pathogens
B. Transport globulins: transport ions and hormones

What are fibrinogens?

4%. largest of plasma proteins. involved in blood clotting processes. They interact with fibrin which makes framework for clotting

How much percent of blood is formed by formed elements

45%

What are different types of formed elements

1. Erythrocytes RBC (99.9%)
2. Leukocytes WBC (

What is a hematocrit reading

the percentage of whole blood occupied by formed elements

What is the hematocrit reading for males and females

males: 45% (5.4 million RBCs per microliter)
females: 42% (4.8 million RBCs per microliter)

Whats the structure of red blood cells (erythrocytes)

they are bioconcave disc with a thin central region which allows the blood cell to be flexible. they measure about 7.7 microns in diameter. they lack a nucleus and organelles, they are formed from anaerobic respiration

What is the lifespan of a RBC?

120 days

What happens to old rbc

they go to the spleen

What are blood types determined by

Determined by agglutinogens or antigens. antigens on the surface of erythrocytes. theyre either glycolipids or glycoproteins

what are the 3 major types of antigen

1. Antigen A: type A blood
2. Antigen B: type B blood
3. Antigen D: carries Rh factor (determines whether it is positive or not) if you do not carry Rh that means you are negative

What antibodies does type A blood have?

anti-B antibodies

What antibodies does type B blood have?

anti-A antibodies

What antibodies does type AB blood have?

no antibodies

What antibodies does type O blood have?

anti-A and anti-B antibodies

What is hemolysis?

destruction of red blood cells

What are white blood cells (leukocytes)?

they are nucleated, and have no hemoglobin.

What is a life span of a leukocyte

hours to days

What are the properties of white blood cells

1. diapedesis: white blood cells could move through capillary wall- between cells
2. chemotaxis: draws the white blood cells toward invading agent

what are 2 major classes of white blood cells

1. granulocytes: granular cytoplasm, lobed nuclei
2. agranulocytes: no granules in cytoplasm, poor staining

What are granulocytes?

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

What are agranulocytes?

lymphocytes and monocytes

What are neutrophils?(granulocyte)

they make up majority of the white blood cells (50%-70%). granules contain chemicals to kill bacteria . they are typically the first wbc at bacterial site. they are very active phagocytic cells. only live 10 hrs. have multi lobed nuclei

What are eosinophils?(granulocyte)

Make up 2%-4%. granules release chemicals that reduce inflammation . granules stain red. they attack foreign substances that have reacted with circulating antibodies. they are associated with allergic reactions and have bilobed nuclei

What are basophils?(granulocyte)

make up less than 1% of wbc. granules release histamine and heparin. histamine dilates blood vessels. heparin prevents abnormal blood clotting . bilobed nucleus is usually hidden due to granules

What are monocytes?(agranulocyte)

make up 2%-8%. no granules. they are the largest white blood cell. they have a kidney or large oval shaped nucleus. they release chemicals to attract other phagocytic cells and fibroblasts(which are important because they produce collagen to surround infected sites, also create scar tissue)

What are lymphocytes?(agranulocyte)

make up about 20%-30%. no granules, little cytoplasm. nucleus stains purple. they make 3 different types of cells. they have 3 different types of cells (1) t cells (2) b cells (3)nk cells. They are important because they are part of specific immunity which is the ability of the body to mount a counterattack on an invading pathogen or foreign proteins on an individual basis

Three different ways lymphocytes do specific immunity

1. t cells: enter peripheral tissues and attack cells directly
2. B cells: differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies
3. Nk cells: responsible for immune surveillance- destroy any abnormal cells they prevent cancer

What are platelets?

They are also known as thrombocytes.they are membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm. theyre derived from large cells in bone marrow called megakaryocytes. little fragments of cytoplasm and cell membrane come off of megakaryocytes and creates platelets. about 350,000 platelets per microliter of blood

What is thrombocytopenia?

lower than normal number of platelets

What is thrombocytosis

higher than normal number of platelets

what is the function of platelets

clotting response. platelet thromboplastin factor released for clotting platelets form temporary patch in the walls of damaged blood vessels then actin and myosin cause contraction after clot has formed to reduce the size of the break in vessel wall

What is blood formation called

hemopoiesis

What happens in hemopoiesis

begins with hematopoietic stem cells which differentiate to form 2 different cells
1. myeloid stem cells: make rbc, wbc, platelets
2. lymphatic system: only make lymphocytes

How many times does a heart beat and why

about 100,000 times per day. to keep blood in motion which is important for homeostasis

How many liters of blood does the heart pump

5-30L per minute

How many chambers does the heart have?

4 (2 atria, 2 ventricles)

How many circuits does blood pump into

2
1. the pulmonary circuit- the lungs
2. the systemic circuit- rest of body

what are the blood vessels we find in both circuits

1. arteries: blood away from heart
2. veins: blood to the heart
3. capillaries: connection and exchange of vessels

What is the membrane that covers heart

serous pericardium. it lines pericardial cavity which is found between 2 pleural cavities

What are the two layers of serous pericardium

parietal (makes up pericardial sac)
visceral (directly attached to heart makes up epicardium)

What are the 3 layers of the walls of the heart

1. Epicardium: external surface, visceral pericardium
2. Myocardium: cardiac muscle cells, connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves
3. Endocardium: innermost internal surface, includes valves that open and close between the atria and ventricles, its continuous with the endothelium of blood vessels

Where's the heart ?

lies slightly left of the midline. with the apex being the inferior portion and base being the superior

What angles is the heart

oblique angle. the right border is made up of right atrium and inferior border is made up of right ventricle

Hows the hart rotated

slightly toward the left. appears to be twisted. posterior surface is the left atrium

How can 4 chambers of the heart be identified?

by sulci on external surface.
1. coronary sulcus: divides atria and ventricles
2. interventricular sulcus: divides 2 ventricles

What else separates atria and ventricles

septa

Right and left atria

positioned superior to coronary sulcus, thin walled. they hve auricles which are expandable extensions they expand when atria are full of blood

Right and left ventricles

positioned inferior to coronary sulcus, they have thicker walls because they pump blood to other parts of body

What does the right atrium receive and from where

deoxygenated blood from
1. superior vena cava: collect blood from body
2. inferior vena cava: collect blood from body
3. coronary sinus: collect blood from heart

What structures does the right atrium consist of

1. pectinate muscles: found along wall
2. fossa ovalis: remnant of the foramen ovale which directly connected right and left atria while the lungs are developing

How does the right ventricle receive deoxygenated blood from right atrium

via the tricuspid valve aka the atrioventricular valve

what are the structures of the right ventricle

1. papillary muscles: found along walls. each ones connected to a cusp via
2. chorade tendinae: in order to prevent valves from inverting
3. Trabeculae carne - folds in interior wall
4. Moderator band: prevents over expansion
5. Pulmonary semilunar valve:

How does the left atrium receive blood?

after the deoxygenated blood left the right ventricle it went to the lungs and became oxygenated and now enters the left atrium via the bicuspid valve which can also be called the left antrioventricular valve and mitral valve

How many cusps does a bicuspid valve have

2

What does the left ventricle have

the thickest wall because this side has to contract the blood so it can go throughout your body (systemic circuit)

What are the structures of the left ventricle

1. chorade tendinae
2. papillary muscles
3. aortic semilunar valve

what do coronary blood vessels do

supply the heart muscle with blood. arteries branch off ascending aorta. veins drain into the coronary sinus which drains to the right atriu

what are the major arteries in coronary vessels

1. right coronary artery (RCA) : posterior interventricular branch
2. left coronary artery (LCA): circumflex branch and anterior interventricular branch

What are the major veins in coronary vessels

1. middle cardiac vein
2. great cardiac veins
3. small cardiac vein
4. coronary sinus

when does heartbeat occur

when 2 atria contract simultaneously while ventricles relax and vice versa

what are contractions called

systole

what happens in systole

blood is injected into the ventricles, pulmonary trunk, and ascending aorta

what is the relaxation of heart called

diastole

What happens in diastole

chambers are filling with blood

How long does a complete heartbeat take

0.8 seconds

What is ekg

electrocardiogram, measures electrical changes that accompany cardiac cycles. important for diagnosing abnormal rhythms

What innervates the heart

autonomic nervous system. meaning brain doesn't initiate contraction but it increases or decreases speed of cycle

What is intrinsic regulating system

it allows atria and ventricles to contract or relax. it is composed of specialized muscles tissue which generates and distributes electrical impulses that causes cardiac muscles to contract

What are the special muscles tissues called

nodes

What are the different nodes

1. Sinoatrial node (SA node) : aka Cardiac pacemaker found in the wall of right atrium that initiates each cardiac cycle and sets pace for heart rate
2. Atrioventricular node (AV node): Connected to fibers (AV bundle) that branch and become smaller in size.Branching allows time for ventricular chambers to fill. they become purkinje cells
3. Purkinje fibers: stimulate contractions of ventricles

What's the autonomic control of heart rate

autonomic control is a result of opposing sympathetic (stimulatory) and parasympathetic (inhibitory) influences. the pacemaker actually sets heart rate however the autonomic nervous system can alter (either make fast heartbeat or slow it down)

What are the 2 centers that increase/decrease heart rate

1. cardioacceleratory center(CAC)
2. cardioinhibitory center (CIC)
both neuron groups located in medulla of brain

What happens in CAC

sympathetic fibers release norepinephrine (adrenaline) that increases height rate and strength of contraction

What happens in CIC

parasympathetic fibers release acetylcholine which decreases heart rate and strength of contraction

What are the 3 blood vessels?

arteries, veins, capillaries

What are the 2 circuits of the heart?

pulmonary circuit: blood from heart to lungs then back again
systemic circuit: blood to cells of the body then back to heart

What are the 3 layers of the walls of vessels

1. intima (Tunica interna)
2. media (tunica media)
3. adventitia (tunica externa)

About intima (tunica interna)

innermost layer. we find internal elastic lamina(membrane) which is composed of elastic fibers

About media (tunica media)

middle layer. we find elastic fibers and smooth muscle here. this layer allows the lumen size to decrease (vasoconstriction) and to increase (vasodilation)

About adventitia (tunica externa)

outermost layer. made up of elastic and collagenous fibers

What do the layered walls give the vessels?

tremendous strength

What do arteries look like

they have thicker walls, they don't collapse when cut. the endothelium has pleated folds.

What do veins look like?

their tunica media is much thinner, it collapses when cut. their tunica externa is thicker and veins have valves

Why do arteries have thick walls?

when blood leaves the heart it is under a lot more pressure so arteries need to be thick

Why do veins have valves?

prevent back flow of blood