Human Anatomy and Physiology: Neuroanatomy, Nerves, Heart, and Endocrine System

Flashcard set reviewing key anatomical structures, cranial/spinal nerves, cardiac anatomy, and major endocrine glands based on lecture notes.

Hormone

A chemical messenger that regulates the function of target organs, such as insulin, adrenaline, or cortisol.

Endocrine Gland

An organ that produces hormones and releases them directly into body fluids, such as the pituitary gland or thyroid.

Testes (Jądra)

Male reproductive glands located in the scrotum that produce sperm and testosterone.

Ovaries (Jajniki)

Female reproductive glands located in the lesser pelvis that produce estrogens and progesterone.

Chambers of the Heart

The four internal spaces of the heart: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle.

Atrioventricular Heart Valves

Valves situated between atria and ventricles, consisting of the mitral valve on the left side and the tricuspid valve on the right side.

Semilunar Heart Valves

Valves located at the exits of the ventricles, including the aortic valve (leading to the aorta) and the pulmonary valve (leading to the pulmonary trunk).

Layers of the Heart Wall

Consists of the inner endocardium, middle myocardium, outer epicardium, and the surrounding pericardium membrane.

Secondary Brain Divisions

The five embryological/secondary divisions of the brain: telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon.

Practical Anatomical Brain Divisions

The main functional anatomical parts of the brain: cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brainstem.

Cerebral Hemispheres

The largest part of the brain, covered by the cerebral cortex composed of gray matter.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Divided into four functional regions: Frontal (voluntary movement, thinking, planning), Parietal (sensation), Temporal (hearing and memory), and Occipital (vision).

Cerebellum

Structure located in the posterior cranial fossa below the occipital lobes, responsible for movement coordination, balance maintenance, and muscle tone.

Brainstem

Structure composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, housing vital centers for breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure regulation.

Mózgowie Człowieka (Human Brain Anatomy)

A sagittal view showing key brain structures including the cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, telencephalon, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, brainstem, and cerebellum.

Olfactory Nerve (CN I)

A sensory cranial nerve responsible for conducting smell stimuli.

Optic Nerve (CN II)

A sensory cranial nerve responsible for conducting visual stimuli.

Oculomotor Nerve (CN III)

A motor cranial nerve responsible for eyeball movements and pupil constriction.

Trochlear Nerve (CN IV)

A motor cranial nerve that innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

Trigeminal Nerve (CN V)

A mixed cranial nerve responsible for facial sensation and mastication (chewing).

Abducens Nerve (CN VI)

A motor cranial nerve responsible for abduction of the eyeball.

Facial Nerve (CN VII)

A mixed cranial nerve innervating muscles of facial expression and conveying taste from the anterior $\frac{2}{3}$ of the tongue.

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII)

A sensory cranial nerve responsible for hearing and balance.

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX)

A mixed cranial nerve responsible for taste from the posterior $\frac{1}{3}$ of the tongue and swallowing.

Vagus Nerve (CN X)

A mixed cranial nerve providing autonomic innervation to organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Accessory Nerve (CN XI)

A motor cranial nerve innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII)

A motor cranial nerve responsible for tongue movement.

Cervical Plexus

Spinal nerve plexus from $C1-C4$ that innervates mainly the neck and diaphragm, giving rise to the phrenic nerve.

Brachial Plexus

Spinal nerve plexus from $C5-Th1$ that provides motor and sensory innervation to the upper limb.

Nerves of the Brachial Plexus

Includes musculocutaneous nerve (anterior arm muscles, lateral forearm skin), median nerve (forearm flexors, hand muscles), ulnar nerve (forearm flexors, hand muscles), radial nerve (arm, forearm, and hand extensors), and axillary nerve (deltoid and teres minor muscles).

Lumbar Plexus

Spinal nerve plexus from $L1-L3$ that innervates the anterior thigh; gives rise to the femoral nerve and obturator nerve.

Sacral Plexus

Spinal nerve plexus from $L4-S3$ that innervates the posterior lower limb; gives rise to the sciatic nerve, superior gluteal nerve, and inferior gluteal nerve.

Hypothalamus (Endocrine Role)

Region located in the diencephalon that produces releasing factors (liberins), inhibiting factors (statins), oxytocin, and vasopressin.

Pituitary Gland

Endocrine gland located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone; anterior lobe secretes growth hormone (GH), prolactin, TSH, etc., while posterior lobe stores oxytocin and vasopressin.

Pineal Gland

Endocrine gland situated in the diencephalon that produces melatonin.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland located in the anterior neck region that produces $T3$, $T4$, and calcitonin.

Parathyroid Glands

Small glands on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland that produce parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Thymus

Endocrine organ situated in the mediastinum that produces thymosin and thymopoietin.

Adrenal Glands

Endocrine glands located in the abdominal cavity on the upper poles of the kidneys, producing cortisol and adrenaline.

Pancreas (Endocrine Function)

Abdominal organ that produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels.

Internal Structure of the Testis

Surrounded by tunica albuginea, divided into lobules containing seminiferous tubules, rete testis, and mediastinum testis.

Anatomical Parts of the Male Urethra

Composed of four segments: prostatic part, membranous part, bulbar part, and spongy (pendulous) part.