AP Psychology Cram Packet - Key Concepts and Theories

Inferential Statistics

Analyzes data to draw conclusions beyond sample.

Hypothesis

Tentative explanation that can be tested.

Placebo Effect

Behavior change due to belief in treatment.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participant nor experimenter knows conditions.

Single-Blind Study

Only participant is unaware of conditions.

Falsifiable

Can be supported or rejected through evidence.

Operational Definition

Precise definition allowing replication of study.

Statistical Significance

Results unlikely due to chance, p<.05 indicates significance.

Effect Size

Indicates practical significance of data findings.

Ethical Guidelines

Standards ensuring participant rights and safety.

Informed Consent

Participants must agree to participate knowingly.

Confidentiality

Participants' identities must remain private.

Population

Entire group research findings apply to.

Sample

Specific individuals chosen for study participation.

Random Assignment

Participants assigned randomly to groups for fairness.

Confound

Unintended variable affecting study results.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of a single individual.

Surveys

Data collection method using self-reported responses.

Random Sample

Participants selected randomly from the population.

Meta-Analysis

Combines results from multiple studies for insights.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes data characteristics through measures.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, median, and mode describe data center.

Sampling Bias

Sample not representative of the population.

Bimodal Distribution

Data set with two modes or most frequent values.

Cultural norms

Behaviors of a group influencing research outcomes.

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations affecting study results.

Participant bias

Participants' expectations influencing study outcomes.

Independent Variable

Manipulated factor to observe effects.

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome dependent on independent variable.

Experimental Group

Group receiving treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

Baseline group receiving no treatment.

Confirmation bias

Favoring information that supports existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Believing one predicted an outcome after it occurs.

Overconfidence

Exaggerated belief in one's knowledge or abilities.

Hawthorne effect

Behavior change when individuals are observed.

Skew

Distribution distortion caused by outliers.

Negative skew

Mean is less than median; tail on left.

Positive skew

Mean is greater than median; tail on right.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest values.

Standard deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean.

Action Potential

Electrical charge traveling down a neuron's axon.

Resting potential

Neuron's stable charge at -70mV.

Depolarization

Neuronal charge shift from negative to positive.

Threshold of depolarization

Minimum stimulus strength to trigger action potential.

All or nothing principle

Neuron fires fully or not at all.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances affecting mental processes and behavior.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce nervous system activity.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase nervous system activity.

Hallucinogens

Substances causing altered perceptions and hallucinations.

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that act as endorphin agonists.

Tolerance

Needing more of a drug for the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive need to use a substance to avoid withdrawal.

Withdrawal

Symptoms occurring after sudden cessation of drug use.

Cerebellum

Brain region for movement and balance.

Brainstem

Controls vital functions like heart rate and breathing.

Reticular activating system

Regulates alertness and sleep-wake cycles.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer brain layer for higher-order functions.

Limbic System

Brain region involved in emotions and memory.

Somatic NS

Controls voluntary movements and sensory information.

Autonomic NS

Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic NS

Activates fight or flight response.

Twin/Adoption Studies

Research comparing genetic and environmental influences.

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Increases action potentials in other neurons.

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Decreases action potentials in other neurons.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter, activates neurons.

Dopamine

Involved in reward and short-term pleasure.

Serotonin

Regulates mood and long-term emotional stability.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Important for memory and muscle movement.

Norepinephrine

Involved in sympathetic nervous system responses.

Hypothalamus

Regulates reward, pleasure, and homeostasis.

Thalamus

Relay center for sensory information.

Pituitary gland

Interacts with the endocrine system for hormone release.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Controls rest and digest functions.

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system.

Endorphins

Natural pain relievers produced by the body.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain regulation.

Dendrites

Receive incoming neurotransmitters from other neurons.

Axon

Pathway for action potentials to travel.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates axon, speeding up action potential.

Synapse

Gap between two communicating neurons.

Sensory Neurons

Receive sensory signals and send to brain.

Occipital Lobe

Brain region responsible for vision processing.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in decision making and personality.

Motor Neurons

Transmit signals from brain to muscles.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons in the CNS.

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes touch and sensation information.

Oxytocin

Hormone associated with love and bonding.

Adrenaline

Hormone that triggers fight or flight response.

Leptin

Hormone that signals fullness to the brain.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger and appetite.

Melatonin

Hormone regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Agonist

Drug that mimics neurotransmitter action.

Antagonist

Drug that blocks neurotransmitter action.

Reuptake

Process of neurotransmitter recycling in neurons.

Reflex Arc

Pathway for immediate reflex actions.

Glia

Support cells providing nutrients to neurons.

Circadian Rhythms

24-hour biological clock regulating sleep patterns.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right brain hemispheres.