Biology, Memory, Scientific Method, and Chemistry Concepts (Pages 1-5)

Vocabulary flashcards covering memory, learning, science methodology, and basic chemistry/water concepts from Pages 1–5.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a learned response.

Nervous System

A system composed of circuits of neurons and supporting cells that process and transmit information.

Neuronal Plasticity

The nervous system's ability to remodel connections after birth, especially at synapses, driven by activity.

Synapse

The junction between neurons where communication occurs and remodeling can take place.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary memory storage for minutes or seconds; typically limits around 7± items and can be displaced by new information.

Long-Term Memory

Memory with essentially infinite duration and capacity, strengthened by repeated use and high synaptic activity.

Memory

An anatomical/physiological event at synapses that depends on plasticity and activity.

Long-Term Potentiation

A lasting increase in the strength of synaptic transmission, associated with memory formation.

Learning

Using knowledge or experiences to reduce the chance of a negative outcome, such as avoiding a painful experience.

Chunking

Grouping items into larger units to make learning and memory more efficient.

Association

A cognitive link that aids memory formation by connecting ideas or items.

Stimulus

An input that triggers sensory memory and processing.

Sensory Memory

Brief initial storage of sensory information before encoding.

Encoding

Process of converting sensory input into a memory trace for storage.

Organization (Memory Organization)

Using associations and structure to facilitate memory formation.

Evolution

Unifying idea that all living things descend from common ancestors (common descent).

Emergent Properties

Properties arising from interactions of parts; the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Levels of Biological Organization

The hierarchical organization of life from atoms to ecosystems.

Scientific Method

Systematic approach to explaining natural phenomena based on observation, measurement, and methodological naturalism.

Hypothesis

A testable, proposed explanation for observations based on available evidence.

Predictions

Expected outcomes when testing a hypothesis (IF… THEN…).

Theory

Broad explanatory framework with substantial support that guides new hypotheses and predictions.

Law

A statement describing what always occurs under certain conditions, describing a pattern rather than explaining why.

Atom

The basic unit of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Proton

Positively charged subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus.

Neutron

Electrically neutral subatomic particle in the nucleus.

Electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus in electron shells.

Electron Shells

Regions around the nucleus where electrons reside; energy levels vary by shell.

Potential Energy

Energy due to position or structure that can do work; must be restored after use.

Valence Shell

Outermost electron shell in an atom.

Valence Electrons

Electrons in the valence shell involved in chemical bonding.

Molecule

Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Chemical Bond

A force that holds atoms together by sharing or transferring electrons; bonds store energy.

Covalent Bond

Bond formed by sharing electrons, typically producing a full valence shell.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

Covalent bond with nearly equal electronegativity, resulting in even electron sharing.

Polar Covalent Bond

Covalent bond with unequal electron sharing, creating partial positive and negative charges.

Ionic Bond

Bond formed by attraction between oppositely charged ions after electron transfer.

Salt

Ionic compounds (often crystallize) formed by ionic bonds, such as NaCl.

Van der Waals Interactions

Weak, short-lived interactions due to transient charge distributions; can be significant collectively.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom (O or N) with partial charges.

Water (H2O)

A polar molecule capable of forming hydrogen bonds; solvent of life.

Cohesion

Attraction between water molecules.

Adhesion

Attraction between water and other substances.

Specific Heat (Water)

Water's high capacity to absorb heat, moderating temperature changes.

Universal Solvent

Water dissolves many polar substances, making it a versatile solvent.

Hydrophilic

Substances that are attracted to water and dissolve in it.

Hydrophobic

Substances that repel water and do not dissolve in it.

Polarity

Characteristic of a molecule having uneven charge distribution due to electronegativity differences.