Sports psych 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 & 4.7

What is visualisation?

-Visualisation is a skill involving the ability to watch yourself in your mind’s eye

What does successful visualisation require the use of?

Successful visualisation requires the use of a number of senses:

•Seeing/visual – the use of sight to visualise or see yourself performing

•Hearing/auditory – you may hear the sounds associated with your performance

Touch/feel/kinaesthetic – the ability to feel yourself moving. The kinaesthetic sense is particularly important

Why visualise?

-Visualisation affects physical functioning

-When visualising yourself moving, small messages are sent via your nervous system to the muscle groups involved

-Visualisation plays an important role in rehabilitation for injured athletes

What does visualisation help with?

-Visualisation helps accelerate the learning process by assisting the brain with organisation and coordination of movement

-Visualisation will complement physical practice by establishing the necessary links and connections via nervous pathways between our brains and the muscles required to perform movement/skills

What are the two classes of visualisation?

-Problem solving

-Mental rehearsal

Problem solving visualisation:

This involves using visualisation to:

•Aid concentration and therefore the ability to maintain focus on the task at hand and exclude distractions

•Reduce anxiety and physical tension which can assist athletes to achieve optimal arousal and performance

•Suggest a possible course of action: ‘problem solving’ visualisation techniques that may be appropriate courses of action could include:

•Imagining putting distractions into a box (the black box)

•Imagining tension draining from your body like liquid

•‘The quiet place’ – imagine you are somewhere else where you are alone and relaxed.

Mental rehearsal visualisation:

This is the process of imagining yourself performing a specific movement or skill

There are five mental rehearsal techniques listed and described below:

•Performance practice

•Instant preplay

•During performance

•Instant replay

•Performance review

Mental rehearsal – performance practice:

•Performance practice is usually undertaken at home although may also be used at your competition venue

•It involves visualising the performance of a specific skill that you want to develop

•Performance practice can and should still be undertaken in the event that physical participation is not possible due to injury, illness, bad weather, etc

Mental rehearsal – instant preplay:

•Instant preplay is used more commonly than other forms of mental rehearsal.

It is used only for closed skills – those which are predictable, repeated and self-paced – and involves taking a few moments prior to executing your skill to rehearse the process

Mental rehearsal – during performance:

•During performance is a form of mental rehearsal that differs from the other four in that it does not involve closing your eyes or withdrawing from your surroundings

Mental rehearsal – instant replay:

•Instant replay is the reverse of instant preplay

•It takes advantage of the very powerful sensory memory that we possess and allows visual review of an aspect of performance with particular attention paid to the kinaesthetic sense

Mental rehearsal – performance review:

•Performance review is a form of mental rehearsal involving the visual review of an entire performance

Start with relaxation

•When using mental rehearsal to learn new skills or practice old ones, well-timed periods of relaxation will promote more rapid progress

• Relaxation will reduce tension and assist the organisation of subtle and often new information as important dialogue occurs between your brain and body

Stay alert

•Staying alert and concentrating when mentally rehearsing will make images stronger and signals clearer

Use the present tense

• Visualisation will be more vivid if undertaken in the present tense

Set realistic goals

• Imagine yourself performing at a high but realistic level of proficiency

Set specific goals

• The more specific you make the visual and kinaesthetic image, the more effect it will have

Use all your senses:

• All senses should be used when mentally rehearsing to ensure the experience is as realistic as possible

Visualise from the inside out and from the outside in:

-Using a combination of both techniques will ensure wide range of senses are evoked and your mental rehearsal is more effective

Visualise at the correct speed:

-Mental rehearsal should replicate the performance situation and therefore should be practised at the same speed you would practice the skills you are visualising

Practice regularly:

-Consistency is more important than length of rehearsal

-If possible, practice your visualisation at the same time and for the same length each day

Enjoy it:

-Mental rehearsal should be enjoyable

-If you are getting bored or frustrated, stop or change your rehearsal to a different aspect of your performance

When do attentional errors occur?

•Attentional mismatch (due to dominant attentional style) under stressful conditions   which may be inappropriate:  thus the dominant style begins to control the person and they lose their ability to make adjustments needed in their focus of concentration

•Inability to adopt or maintain appropriate attentional focus: thus a reduced ability to shift concentration along both dimensions

•Internal and external overloads: concentrating on too many stimuli which results in an overload of information

•Involuntary internal narrowing: attention narrows as arousal and/or fatigue increases.  This narrowing can be so much that an athlete can develop tunnel vision. This narrowing of attention can cause an athlete to have difficulty attending to task relevant cues

•Choking: in this situation, athletes have a feeling of being rushed or not having enough time. Choking is a downward performance spiral that occurs when an individual’s level of emotional arousal reaches the point that attention begins to involuntarily narrow and become increasingly focused on task-irrelevant internal thoughts and feelings

What is flow state?

-Flow state is where the athlete has trained and developed their physical skills to the point that they can be performed automatically

-In flow state, the focus is almost exclusively internal

When does flow state occur?

When an athlete is:

•Fully absorbed in the task

•Not distracted by the external environment

•Operating at a level where challenge meets ability

What are the characteristics of flow?

•Movements feel automatic and smooth

•Thoughts are fully focused on the task

•Sense of time may fade

•Performance is at its peak

How to achieve flow?

• Train skills until they become automatic

• Commit to continuous improvement

• Set clear goals and stay focused on the process

Benefits of flow:

• Boosts confidence and enjoyment

• Leads to optimal performance

• Encourages long-term motivation and personal growth

What is attention?

-The ability to be able to concentrate on the correct things during performance

What is concentration?

-The ability to completely focus on your attention on something for a period of time

What are the four parts/aspects of concentration?

-Focusing on relevant environmental cues —> selective attention (what cues to attend and what cues to ignore)

-Maintaining attentional focus —> maintaining focus for the duration of the situation

-Situation awareness —> the ability to understand your environment

-Shifting attentional focus —> cues alter throughout (e.g change in weather conditions)

What are the two dimensions of attention?

-Width (on a continuum from broad to narrow)

-Direction (from internal to external)

What does width refer to?

-How many things you’re paying attention to at once

-When your attention is broad, you are paying attention to MANY things

-When your attention is narrow, you are concentrating on specifically one or very few things

What does direction refer to?

-Internal —> whether your attention is focused internally toward your own thoughts & feelings

-External —> whether your attention is focused mainly toward the events in your environment

-Events can be both internal & external —> endurance events

What are the four attentional styles?

-Broad internal

-Broad external

-Narrow internal

-Narrow external

Broad internal:

-Requires good thinking and planning, players who can organise information and ideas

-These players are often very good at planning strategies and preparing for opposition moves, but can often be overly analytical and miss other important information

-Examples: A rugby player deciding who to pass to, a softball pitcher planning the next pitch, a cricket captain placing the fielder, or a soccer coach planning set plays for free kicks

Broad external:

-This type of athlete can quickly analyse a complex situation and respond to it

-They “see” everything that is happening

-Occasionally they can suffer from information “overload” making their response to slow or inappropriate

-Examples: a quarterback scanning the field for a receiver, a volleyballer setter aware of his spikers and the opposing blocker, a rugby player winning the ball and deciding whether to run or pass.

Narrow internal:

-This is a good style for analysis in sports in which change is quite slow and predictable

-Athletes can concentrate on their performance, for instance, a diver must focus on what they need to do; the environment is constant.

-Sometimes, athletes in this style can become overly critical of their performance

-Examples: A rugby player checking his body position in mid-air whilst jumping up to take the ball, a diver uses this style of concentration to mentally rehearse his performance, a golfer determining the “force” to apply in a putt

Narrow external:

-This athlete has an ability to focus on one or a few external cues

-A batter in any striking sport is essentially focusing on the ball and perhaps the mode of delivery

-A golfer is concentrating on the line of the putt to the hole

-Problems arise when there are changes in the environment which the athlete doesn’t pick up

-Examples: a rugby player may focus on the ball when catching, a track sprinter listening for the gun, a goalkeeper trying to save a penalty, a baseballer waiting to catch a fly ball

Disadvantages/advantages of the broad internal attentional style:

•Good thinking

•Good planning player

•Can organise information and ideas

•Very good at planning strategies

•Good at preparing for oppositions moves

•Analysis, problem solve and creative thinking

•Able to deal with large numbers of ideas at one time

•Sum up play and makes quick adjustments

•Can be over analytical and out thinks themselves

•Miss other important information

•Have trouble sticking to one thing

•May not react quickly enough

•Mistakes occur when athletes become caught back inside his/her head at a time when attention should be directed elsewhere

Disadvantages/advantages of the broad external attentional style:

•Can quickly analyse complex situations and respond to them

•They “see” everything that is happening

•Good peripheral awareness

•Good at scanning, picking the open teammate

•Can suffer from information overload and therefore can be slow to make decisions

•May also react too quickly without thinking

•Falls for fakes easily

•Too busy reading and reacting to the environment to think

Disadvantages/advantages of the narrow internal attentional style:

•Good style for analysis in sports in which change is quite slow and predictable

•Athletes can concentrate on their performance, e.g. a diver must concentrate on what they need to do

•The environment is constant

•Enhanced kinaesthetic (body) awareness

•Often an indication of dedication and capacity to follow instructions, to stick to a game plan

•Able to focus on a single thought

•Athletes can become over critical of their performance

•Fails to attend to and incorporate new information.

•Not sensitive to what is going on around them

•May result in the athlete becoming distracted by internal bodily processes i.e. in flexibility

Disadvantages/advantages of the narrow external attentional style:

•Able to focus on one or few external cues e.g. golfer is concentrating on the line of the putt to the hole

•Ability to block out distraction and remain focused

•Will stick to a task for a long time

•Able to focus on relevant aspects of the task

•Useful in target skills and as a way of blocking out distractions

•Problems arise when there are changes in the environment which the athlete does not pick up

•May stick to the same response even though it is not working

•Too narrow a field of vision and hearing

•The athlete does not see all things necessary to make a good performance

Consistently, good performers are able to:

-Be placed, or place themselves, at an arousal level which is optimal for desired performance

Athlete directed techniques to raise arousal levels:

-Playing loud/stimulating music

-Set personal achievement challenges

-Watch motivational videos

-Engage in a vigorous warm up

Coach directed techniques to raise arousal levels:

-Stress the importance of the result.

-Give athletes a publicised responsibility.

-Give the athletes’ a “pep” talk.

-Provide performance goals to be achieved.

Athlete directed techniques to lower arousal levels:

-Accept that some tension or anxiety is usual prior to competition.

-Engage in preferred relaxation technique such as controlled breathing, centering, progressive relaxation techniques, imagery, visualisation, massage, meditation and yoga.

-Engage in mental rehearsal.

-Focus on task relevant factors (if over aroused during performance)

-Seek out others who are calm.

-Listen to your favourite music

-Engage in a preferred distracting activity.

Coach directed techniques to lower arousal levels:

-Downplay the importance of the contest and the result.

-Provide time for relaxation.

-Direct athletes’ attention to the process required to perform well.

-Present a calm presence themselves.

-Remind the athletes of their thorough and appropriate preparation.

-Provide a pre-competition strategy which provides the necessary control and direction to limit anxiety.

-Keep sport in perspective.

What is anxiety?

-A feeling of apprehension closely associated with our own concept of fear

-Stress leads to anxiety which manifests itself as arousal

What is state anxiety?

-Inherent in a situation as perceived by a participant

-Anxiety states —> A-state = our response to a particular situation

What is trait anxiety?

-The anxiety of our personality or an underlying disposition to certain levels of anxiety given a particular situation

-Anxiety traits (A-trait) are the characteristics of our personality, our general anxiety level

What is choking?

-High stress levels that negatively impact an athlete’s performance that prevent and athlete from performing at their best

-Can happen very suddenly

-When the pressure builds and the importance of the situation makes it hard to control one’s emotions, a sportsperson can become physically unable to execute the easiest of sporting skills

What are the three categories of symptoms of anxiety?

Cognitive (thought process), somatic (physical body responses) & behavioural (patterns of behaviours)

Examples of cognitive symptoms:

-Indecision

-Negative thoughts

-Irritability

-Fear

-Loss of confidence

Examples of somatic symptoms:

-Increased blood pressure

-Pounding heart

-Sweating

-Nausea

-Trembling

Examples of behavioural symptoms:

-Fidgeting

-Biting fingernails

-Introversion

-Playing safe

-Inhibited posture

Symptoms of under arousal:

-Boredom

-Late to matches

-Poor concentration

-Skill errors

-Poor performance choices

What is stress?

-A state of physiological or psychological tension produced by internal or external forces

What are sources of stress (stressors)

-External stressors —> usually are physiological & measurable, such as extremes in temperature, illness, injury & hard physical training

-Internal stressors —> usually psychological, such as changing a coach, failing a test, an unhappy relationship or losing a competition

What is arousal?

-The amount of readiness or activation a person experiences when faced with a task

-Arousal = the heightened sense of physical & mental alertness or activation. and is an organism’s overall state of readiness for action

Yerkes and Dodson’s inverted U hypothesis:

-This theory states that as arousal increases, so too will the quality of performance until arousal passes beyond an optimal level; beyond this optimal range of arousal, performance will diminish

What is the primary role of a coach?

-To place each of their athletes in their optimum range of arousal just as they enter competition —> difficult as an athlete’s arousal levels can change by the minute

What can affect an athlete’s optimum level of arousal?

-Level of experience of the athlete

-The person’s perception of the competition

-The degree of distraction or disruption in the pre-competition phase

-Their personality

How can the relationship between performance and arousal be affected?

It can be affected by:

-The type of skill or sport —> in this concept, the level of arousal must still be optimal for that athlete in that sport

-The relationship between arousal and performance differs greatly between sports

-For instance, a golfer requires far less arousal for optimal performance than a hockey goalie

-Fine motor skills tend to require low arousal compared to gross motor skills

What is the catastrophe theory?

-The theory is three-dimensional as it includes physiological arousal and performance, as in the Inverted U theory, and also cognitive anxiety (trait and state anxiety acting together)

-Increased arousal will benefit performance as long as cognitive anxiety is relatively low

How to aid an athlete’s motivation?

-Goal setting: to keep athletes on track and to build enthusiasm

-Extrinsic rewards: to reinforce the athlete’s sense of competence & self-worth

-Motivational music: to regulate work & recovery times

-Positive self-talk: makes use of an athlete’s powerful inner voice to reinforce their self-esteem or important aspects of their performance

What are the three types of self-talk?

-Task relevant self-talk: serves to focus and athlete’s attention on the task at hand

-Mood related self-talk: impacts on how an athlete feels

-Positive self-affirmation statement: talking yourself up to gain confidence

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What is positive motivation?

-Induces people to do work in the best possible manner and to improve their performance

-Facilities & rewards are provided for their better performance —> rewards (financial & non-financial)

-This type of motivation should be provided after the individual has displayed the desired behaviour

-Positive feedback enhances intrinsic motivation

Athletes who play for positive-oritented coaches:

-Like their teammates better

-Enjoy their athletic experience more

-Like their coaches more

-Experience greater team cohesion

Examples of reinforcers in positive motivation:

-Social reinforcers: praise, smile, pat on the back, publicity

-Material reinforces: trophies, medals, ribbons, t-shirts

-Activity reinforcers: playing a game rather than drilling, playing a different position, taking a trip to play another team, getting a rest

-Special outings: going to a professional game, team party

What is negative motivation?

-Aims at controlling the negative efforts of the activity and seeks to create a sense of fear for the athlete, which they have to suffer for lack of good performance

-This type of motivation is usually imposed after undesirable behaviour

-Negative motivation provides a contrast between the coach’s positive and negative motivation, and maintains the power & impact of the positive reinforcers

How much more positive reinforcers should a coach provide?

-A coach should provide 10 times more positive reinforcers than negative

Examples of negative motivation:

-Intimidation

-Criticism

-Criticism with sarcasm

-Physical abuse

-Guilt

How is motivation derived?

-Intrinsically/internally

-Intrinsic motivation is usually in the form of satisfaction from doing something well, feeling proud about what you have achieved and enjoying the activity for what it is

-Intrinsic motivation comes from within, is fully self-determined and characterised by interest in, and enjoyment derived from, sports participation

What is intrinsic motivation?

-An athlete’s motivation to perform an activity simply for the reward inherent in their participation

-Intrinsic motivation comes from the activity itself & your role in it

-Long term successful athletes do not rely on external motivators

What is flowstate?

-The highest level of intrinsic motivation = flow state

-Flow is characterised by complete immersion in an activity, to the degree that nothing else matters

-Self-consciousness is lost & athletes become one with the activity

How is motivation driven?

-Motivation is driven either externally intrinsically

-Extrinsic motivation is usually in the form of reward or recognition for performance, and is usually result driven —> money, trophy, medal

What is introjection?

-An internal pressure under which athletes might participate out of feelings of guilt or to achieve recognition

What are tangible extrinsic rewards?

-Rewards which can be measured or are definite such as money or medals

What are intangible extrinsic rewards?

-Rewards which are unquantifiable or that can't see touched such as TV interviews or support or attention from fans

What can make an athlete likely to cease involvement in an activity/sport?

-If the pressure to achieve external recognition is too great

-If the reward is no longer appealing

-If the reward is too difficult to attain

Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation Continuum

-Describes motivation as a gradient from amotivation (lack of intention) to autonomous intrinsic motivation (acting for enjoyment), with different forms of extrinsic motivation positioned between them

What is amotivation?

-A lack of intention to engage in a behaviour

-Accompanied by feelings of incompetence & a lack of connection between one’s behaviour & the expected outcome

-When an athlete is neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, and thus experiences persistent feelings of incompetence & lack of control

When are individuals amotivated?

-When they don’t perceive contingencies between outcomes and their own actions

-They perceive their behaviours as caused by forces out of their control

What is self-determination?

-The degree to which your behaviours are chosen and self-initiated

-Associated with the motivation behind the choices that people make without any external influence and interference —> self-motivation

What does the SDT consider?

-Considers what motivates a person at any given time

-Makes distinctions between different types of motivation and the consequences of them

What are the three innate needs that allow for optimal function and growth?

-Competence —> seek to control the outcome & experience mastery

-Relatedness —> the universal want to interact, be connected to & experience caring for others

-Autonomy —> the universal urge to be casual agents of one’s own life & act in harmony with one’s integrated self

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What is motivation?

-The direction and intensity of one’s efforts

-Can be a positive or negative force

-Many factors can influence an individual’s motivation at any given time

What are successful athletes and coaches driven by?

-A positive force of motivation

What does motivation determine?

-It determines all aspects of our behaviour

-Also impacts on how we think, feel & interact with others

Can motivation be affected by age?

-Yes, as adults typically place a greater emphasis on accomplishment and competition than children do

-Children also are motivated to participate in sport to have fun, improve skills, belong to a group, be successful, gain recognition, get fitter & find excitement

What does continual improvement show?

-Indicates that aspects of the coaching regime are suscceding

What are Rushall’s four criteria for identifying a performer’s behaviour as motivated?

1. Attending practices, are punctual, successfully complete tasks, encourage others & are involved in activities like social club functions

2. More regularly achieve desired behaviours in training and competition

3. The athlete’s character takes on the features of the desired behaviour

4. Performing the behaviour requires seemingly fewer rewards

What must coaches be in their methods of motivation?

-Coaches must be consistent

-Inconsistency can lead to motivational problems in athletes