PR 3 | SA1 Reviewer

Table

• concisely presents and summarize information (often numbers) in rows and columns

• present the results of exploratory data analyses or mining techniques

• estimates statistics or functions

• share full trial-level data

Parts of a Table

• number

• title

• heading

• body

• notes

Figure

• any other image or illustration you include in your text

• examples include a graphs, illustrations, images, and flowcharts

Bar Graph

for comparing data sets

Line Graph

for showing trends

Flowchart

for showing setups

Images/Illustrations

for showing real-life elements or illustrating scenarios

Parts of a Figure

• number

• title

• image

• legend

• Notes

Table and Figure Number

• based on when it is referred to in the text

• use only Arabic numerals

• boldfaced

• use double-space

• above table/figure

Table and Figure Title

• must be brief yet explanatory

• use double-space

• italicized

• directly below table/figure number

Table Headings

• labels for the information

• provide crucial contextual labels to facilitate the readers’ understanding of the data in the table body

• must be present in each column

Table Body

• all rows and columns

• any spacing format is valid (single, double, and 1.5)

Table/Figure Notes

• used when the table/figure requires further explanation

• must be in the following order: general, specific, probability

• each type of note has its own paragraph

• comes after “Note” that is italicized followed by a period

General Notes

• any explanations that apply to the table or figure as a whole

• citations that were adapted from another source

• end with definitions of any abbreviations used

Specific Notes

• specific points in the table or figure.

• superscript letters (a, b, c …) appear at the relevant points in the table or figure and at the start of each note to indicate what they refer to

• used to comment on a specific data point or term

Probability Notes

• give p-values in the data

• correspond to asterisks/other symbols in the table/figure

Formatting Tables

• no vertical lines must be present

• only use horizontal lines is needed for clarity

• consistently format numbers

• stub/leftmost column must be flush left, the rest are centered

Size and Proportion of Figure Elements

• must be large and sharp enough

• use a sans-serif font

• font must be 8-14 pt

• can be read from arm’s length for manuscripts and the farthest point in the room for presentations

Table Legends

• must be used for graphs

• explains any symbols, lines, or colors used in the figure image

• must be within the borders of the figure

Mechanics for Figure Images

• Use title case for axis

• “Number” can be abbreviated to “no.”

• “Percent” can be abbreviated to “%”

• Use known abbreviations, define unknown ones if they will be used.

Common Shading and Patterns Technique for Graphs

• Follow this pattern for shading bar and pie charts.

  • one graph in solid color

  • one with no color

  • one with a pattern

  • error bars must still be seen

• Different patterns may be used to distinguish lines in line graphs.

• Limit the number of patterns in a graph.

• Avoid gridlines and 3D effects unless they help represent the figures (e.g. 3D representations of stimuli).

• Label each graph and line directly if they are farther apart from each other.

Colors in Figures

• can be used to distinguish graphs

• may cause issues with printing

• use of color may depend on audience of your paper

• use a contrast checker and confirm it passes the standards of WCAG 2.0 Level AA or later

General Guidelines for Tables/Figures

• Ensure they are necessary to the research paper, and not just mere decorations.

• Ensure they are compatible in print and electronic.

• Ensure consistency across comparable tables.

• Explain any abbreviations if necessary.

• Follow the guidelines for formatting statistical terms, variables, and data.

• Credit any relevant citations, including copyright attributions.

• Ensure it adheres to the journal format.

Results Section

• presentation of the results/findings and explanation of what they mean

• includes descriptive text, tables, and figures to help summarize the results/findings

• does not include interpretations

• clear, concise, and objective

Steps in Writing the Results Section

1. Restate the research questions/objectives to establish a connection to the previous section and create a smooth flow of information.

2. Systematically communicate the findings of your research based on the order research question.

3. Represent statistics with graphs, tables, and other figures to help illustrate the findings of your paper, especially if there is a large amount of data in the results.

4. Report all relevant results, even those that are not statistically significant.

Tables and Figures in the Results Section

• used to summarize your data

• makes it easy for readers to understand

Tips for Writing an Effective Results Section

1. Always use simple and clear language, and void the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions.

2. The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. Avoid overinterpreting the results.

3. If the research addresses more than one hypothesis, use sub-sections to describe the results to prevent confusion and promotes understanding.

4. Ensure that negative results are included in this section.

5. Wherever possible, use visual representations to showcase the results. Mention them in the text, but do not repeat the information that they convey.

6. For statistical data, it is adequate to highlight the tests and explain their results. Avoid mentioning the initial or raw data.

7. Ensure the results section is a relatively brief overview of your findings.

What to Avoid Writing in the Results Section

1. Cause-and-effect conclusions

2. Interpretations

3. Statistics without context

4. Raw data

5. Text alone

6. Repeated data

7. All findings (ensure to keep all relevant data)

Writing the Full Word for Numbers

• for numbers under 10

• a number that appears at the start of the sentence

Writing the Exact Numeral for Numbers

• Exact numbers before units of measurement or time

• Mathematical equations

• Percentages and percentiles

• Ratios, decimals, and uncommon fractions

• Scores and points on scales (e.g., 7-point scale)

• Exact amounts of money

Reporting Approximate Figures

• spell numbers under 10

• spell the names of units of measurement

Decimal Places and Leading Zeroes

• use two or three decimal places

• only use leading zeroes for values that can exceed zero

Using N vs n

• N is for the total number of elements in a sample

• n is for the number of elements in each subgroup for the full sample

Which Abbreviations to Define in Reporting Figures

• Abbreviations that do not represent statistics: ANOVA, CI, CFA

• Non-standard abbreviations that appear in tables and figures, even if they are already defined in the text.

Which Abbreviations to Not Define in Reporting Figures

• Statistical symbols or abbreviations: M, SD, F, t, df, p, N, n, OR

• Greek letters: α, β, χ²

Capitalization, Italicization, and Hyphenation

• Statistical terms for tests and values (e.g. t-test, z-test, an p-value) always begin with a lowercase, italicized letter

• Never begin a sentence with lowercase statistical abbreviations.

• Only hyphenate terms if they modify a word.

• Pluralize statistical symbols by adding a non-italicized “s” with no apostrophe.

• Italicize letters when they are statistical symbols or algebraic variables.

What should you not italicize?

• greek letters

• subscripts for statistical symbols

• trigonometric terms

• vectors/matrices (boldface instead)

• Names of effects or variables only when they appear with multiplication sign

When to Use Parentheses in Reporting Figures

Use when reporting

• degrees of freedom

• statistical values when they aren’t already in parentheses

When to Not Use Parentheses in Reporting Figures

Use when reporting

• Confidence interval limits

• Statistics in a text that’s already enclosed within parentheses

Other Guidelines for Reporting Figures

• Always use or include metric units for all measurements

• Only use the words “percent” or “percentage” when numbers aren’t used, or when a percentage appears at the start of a sentence.

• Use symbols for statistical terms when directly referring to a numerical quantity or operator.

• Use words for statistical terms in the main text.

Descriptive Statistics

these statistics summarize and organize characteristics of a data set

Reporting Descriptive Statistics

• Categorical variables can be reported using proportions.

• Quantitative data can be reported using means and standard deviations.

• For a large set of numbers, a table is the most effective presentation format.

• Include sample sizes (overall and for each group) as well as appropriate measures of central tendency and variability for the outcomes in your results section.

Reporting Means and Standard Deviations

• Can be presented in the main text and/or in parentheses.

• Report data in parentheses like this: (M = 111.1 cm, SD = 12.1)

• Don’t need to repeat the units of measurement for statistics relating to the same data.

• Report means and standard deviations for data measured on integer scales to one decimal.

• Report other means, standard deviations, correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics to two decimals.

Inferential Statistics

Makes inferences about the broader population using the sample data

p-value

a posteriori probability that the result that you obtained, or one more extreme, occurred by chance

Alpha Level

the a priori criterion for the probability of falsely rejecting your null hypothesis

Reporting p-values

You may either use the alpha level (e.g. F(1, 16) = 44, p < .05) or report the exact value (e.g. F(1, 16) = 44, p = .03)

Reporting Correlations

Include the following:

• the degrees of freedom in parentheses

• the r value (the correlation coefficient)

• the p value

Example: r(25) = .12, p < .001 or (r = .12, p = .001)

Reporting a Significant Correlation

• Round the p-value to three decimal places.

• Round the value for r to two decimal places.

• Drop the leading 0 for the p-value and r (e.g. use .77, not 0.77)

• The degrees of freedom (df) is calculated as N – 2.

Format for Reporting a Significant Correlation

“A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the linear relationship between [variable 1] and [variable 2].

“There was a [negative or positive] correlation between the two variables, r(df) = [r value], p = [p-value].”

Reporting Regressions

Include the following:

• the R² value (the coefficient of determination)

• the degrees of freedom in parentheses

• the F-value (the F statistic)

• the p-value

Example: R² = .30, F(1, 25) = .12, p < .001

Reporting t tests

Include the following:

• the degrees of freedom in parentheses

• the t-value (the t statistic)

• the p-value

Example: t(25) = .12, p < .001

Reporting Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Include the following:

• the degrees of freedom in parentheses

• the F value (the F statistic)

• the p value

Example: F(1, 25) = .12, p < .001

Reporting a Chi-squared Test

Include the following:

• the degrees of freedom in parentheses

• the chi-square value (the chi-square test statistic)

• the p value

Example: X²(25) = .12, p < .001

Format for Reporting a Chi-squared Test

“A Chi-Square Test of Independence was performed to assess the relationship between [variable 1] and [variable 2].

“There [was or was not] a significant relationship between the two variables, X²(df, N) = [X² value], p = [p-value].”

Aims of a Qualitative Results Section

• Describe research findings (e.g., themes, categories, narratives) and the meaning and understandings that the researcher has derived from the data analysis.

• Demonstrate the analytic process of reaching findings (e.g., quotes, excerpts of data).

• Present research findings in a way that is compatible with the study design.

• Present synthesizing illustrations (e.g., diagrams, tables, models), if useful in organizing and conveying findings. Photographs or links to videos can be used.

Steps in Reporting the Results of a Thematic Analysis

1. Present a brief overview of the study, including the research questions, methods, and sample characteristics.

2. Organize the results around the key themes or topics that emerged from the data analysis. Write an overview of the themes before delving into each individual theme.

3. Use direct quotes from participants to illustrate your findings to make the findings more engaging.

4. Present all relevant findings, even those not consistent with the original hypotheses.

5. Avoid making interpretations or conclusions about the findings in the results section.

Parts of a Theme Section

1. Theme [Number]: [Title of Theme]

2. Introduction

3. Supporting Quotes

4. Interpretation and Analysis

Theme Section | Introduction

A brief introduction that explains the significance in the context of the research

Theme Section | Supporting Quotes/Examples

Representative quotes/examples from the data that capture the essence of the theme

Theme Section | Interpretation and Analysis

Discussion of the meaning behind the selected quotes or examples offering in-depth analysis, including any variation and patterns

Discussion Section

• opportunity to evaluate and interpret the results of your study or paper

• where you draw inferences and conclusions

• presentation of its contributions to science and/or society

• shows how it relates to the literature review

• makes an supporting argument of your overall conclusion

• generally uses the present tense

Parts of a Discussion Section

1. Summary

2. Interpretations

3. Implications

4. Limitations

5. Recommendations

Summary in Discussion Section

• A brief recap of key results

• Reiteration of research problems and concise summary of major findings

• Use a clear overall statement of the results that directly answers the main research question. 

• At most one paragraph

Summary Starters in the Discussion Section

• The results indicate that…

• The study demonstrates a correlation between…

• This analysis supports the theory that…

• The data suggest that…

• The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of ...

• The results of the present study support the hypothesis that ...

• The results of this research provide supporting evidence that ...

• There are three key findings of the present research. First ... Second ... Third ...

Interpretations in Discussion Section

• discusses the meaning of the results

• shows how the results directly answer the research questions

• organized based on key themes, hypotheses, or research questions, follow the same structure as the results section

Interpretation Approaches in Discussion Section

• Identifying correlations, patterns, and relationships among the data

• Discussing whether the results met your expectations or supported your hypotheses

• Contextualizing your findings within previous research and theory

• Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their significance

• Considering possible alternative explanations and making an argument for your position

Interpretation Starters in Discussion Section

• In line with the hypothesis…

• Contrary to the hypothesized association…

• The results contradict the claims of Smith (2022) that…

• The results might suggest that x. However, based on the findings of similar studies, a more plausible explanation is y.

• This pattern of results is consistent with the previous literature ... (citation).

• These results are consistent with the claim that ...

• The present results are consistent with Author et al.’s (year) work that deals with ...

• Whereas past researchers have found ... (citation; citation; citation), the present study has shown ...

• These results represent the first direct demonstration of ...

Implications in Discussion Section

• shows why the results matter

• Relate results back to the scholarly work surveyed in the literature review.

• show how your findings fit with existing knowledge, what new insights they contribute, and what consequences they have for theory or practice

• Show the reader what your research has contributed and why they should care

Implication Starters in Discussion Section

• These results build on existing evidence of…

• The results do not fit with the theory that…

• The experiment provides a new insight into the relationship between…

• These results should be taken into account when considering how to…

• The data contribute a clearer understanding of…

• While previous research has focused on x, these results demonstrate that y.

Limitations in Discussion Section

• provides an accurate picture of what can and cannot be concluded

• might be due to your overall research design, specific methodological choices, or unanticipated obstacles that emerged during your research process

Limitation Examples

• Limited generalizability due to small or contained sample size

• Influences of encountered problems during data gathering and analysis

• Effects of confounding variables

Limitation Starters

• The generalizability of the results is limited by…

• The reliability of these data is impacted by…

• Due to the lack of data on x, the results cannot confirm…

• The methodological choices were constrained by…

• It is beyond the scope of this study to…

• There are at least three potential limitations concerning the results of this study. A first limitation concerns ... A second potential limitation is that ...

• One limitation of this study is that ... It is possible that ... Although the present research cannot rule out these explanations, it seems useful to point out issues that may conflict with these results.

• Although the present results clearly support ..., it is appropriate to recognize several potential limitations.

• Besides our own interpretation of the data, an additional explanation warrants comment. For example, researchers have suggested ... (citation).

• Certain limitations of this study could be addressed in future research. For example ...

• The present study represents a first attempt to address these issues. We feel that further research examining ... may shed light on ...

Recommendations in the Discussion Section

• avenues for further studies or analyses

• suggestions for practical implementation or further research

• give concrete ideas for how future work can build on unaddressed areas

Recommendation Starters in the Discussion Section

• Further research is needed to establish…

• Future studies should take into account…

• Avenues for future research include…

• Although these studies support ... , their most important contribution may be that they raise a variety of intriguing questions for future study.

• In terms of future research, it would be useful to extend the current findings by examining ...

• If, as the present study suggests, ... then there is a need for research that explores ...

Closing Statement/Paragraph Samples in the Discussion Section

• Despite these limitations, this research can be seen as a first step towards integrating two lines of research, [x and y], that, to our knowledge, have not been directly linked.

• Despite these limitations, the present study has enhanced our understanding of the relationship between [x and y]. We hope that the current research will stimulate further investigation of this important area.

• The present research, therefore, contributes to a growing body of evidence suggesting that …

• In summary, our research replicates (citation) …

• The findings contribute to a growing body of evidence …

• Although the generality of the current results must be established by future research, the present study has provided clear support for ... Not only was ... Furthermore ...

What to Avoid in the Discussion Section

1. New results

2. Exaggerated Claims

3. Undermining of Research

4. Restatement of Results

5. Repetition of recommendations (assuming they appear in the conclusion)

6. Overuse of the first-person pronoun