Biology: Cells, DNA, and Heredity

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering cell theory, organelles, DNA structure, protein synthesis, mutations, chromosomes, and inheritance including Indigenous perspectives.

Cell Theory

A biological concept stating that all living things are made up of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Organelles

Tiny, specialized units inside cells that each have a specific job to do, such as producing energy or building proteins.

Nucleus

The organelle surrounded by a double membrane whose role is to protect and confine the genetic information ($DNA$) of the cell.

Nucleolus

A smaller structure inside the nucleus which is the site of ribosome production.

Ribosomes

Tiny structures that assemble the building blocks to make proteins, serving as the site of protein synthesis.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

A membranous chain of connected, flattened sacs coated with ribosomes that synthesises and modifies proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

A membranous chain of connected and flattened sacs responsible for the production of lipids.

Golgi Apparatus

Stacked, flattened sacs that act as the site of protein sorting, packaging, and modification for use in the cell or export.

Lysosome

A membrane-bound vesicle containing digestive enzymes responsible for breaking down cell waste and toxins.

Mitochondrion

An organelle with a highly folded inner-membrane that is the site of aerobic cellular respiration which produces $ATP$ (energy).

Chloroplast

A double-membrane bound organelle that undergoes photosynthesis to turn sunlight into energy.

Vacuole

A membrane-bound sac used for water and solute storage and for maintaining plant structure.

Plasma Membrane

A selectively permeable barrier made of a phospholipid bi-layer that separates the extracellular and intracellular environments.

Cell Wall

A sturdy border outside the plasma membrane that provides strength and structure to plant, bacteria and fungal cells.

Vesicle

A small, membrane-bound sac that transports substances into or out of a cell.

Cytoskeleton

A large network of protein filaments that maintains cell shape and transports vesicles throughout the cell.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The chemical blueprint for life that carries the instructions an organism needs to grow, develop, and function.

Double Helix

The twisted ladder-like structure of DNA identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

Nucleotide

The building block or monomer of DNA, consisting of a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases.

Nitrogenous Bases

The four chemical bases in DNA: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).

Complementary Base Pairs

The rule that Adenine (A) only bonds to Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) only bonds to Guanine (G).

Gene

Smaller sections of DNA that contain instructions to make one specific protein.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as tiny machines to speed up chemical reactions, such as breaking down food.

Transcription

The first step of making a protein where the gene's instructions are copied from DNA into a molecule called messenger RNA ($mRNA$).

Translation

The process where $mRNA$ travels to the ribosome and is read as instructions to build a protein using amino acids.

Amino Acids

The 20 different small building blocks or monomers that make up proteins.

Codon

A group of three RNA nucleotides that codes for a single amino acid.

Mutation

A permanent change in the DNA that may involve one or a number of genes.

Silent Mutation

A genetic mutation that goes unnoticed because it ends up producing a code for the same amino acid and protein.

Point Mutation

A specific type of genetic mutation, such as substitution, that only affects one nucleotide or base.

Substitution Mutation

A point mutation where one base in the DNA sequence is swapped for another different base.

Frameshift Mutation

A mutation caused by insertion or deletion that changes the reading panel of codons, shifting the frame forwards or backwards.

Insertion Mutation

A type of frameshift mutation involving the addition of a base to the DNA sequence.

Deletion Mutation

A type of frameshift mutation involving the removal of a base from the DNA sequence.

Chromatin

A substance consisting of DNA and proteins called histones that the DNA wraps itself around.

Chromatid

One half of a replicated chromosome; identical copies are referred to as sister chromatids.

Centromere

The middle point that holds two sister chromatids together and is used to count the number of chromosomes.

Karyotype

An individual’s complete set of chromosomes arranged in order from largest to smallest with sex chromosomes last.

Homologous Chromosomes

A pair of chromosomes that are the same size, have the centromere in the same location, and contain the same type of genetic material.

Autosomes

The 22 pairs of chromosomes in humans that contain genetic material for the majority of body proteins.

Sex Chromosomes

The chromosomes labeled 'X' and 'Y' that determine sex; $XX$ for females and $XY$ for males.

Gamete

A haploid ($n$) sex cell, such as sperm or egg, containing only 1 copy of each chromosome.

Somatic Cell

A diploid ($2n$) body cell containing 2 copies (homologous pairs) of each chromosome.

Non-disjunction

The failure of chromosomes to properly separate during replication, resulting in daughter cells with too many or too few chromosomes.

Alleles

Different versions of the same gene caused by small changes to the genetic code.

Genotype

The combination of two alleles inherited from the parents for a specific trait.

Phenotype

The physical expression or observable characteristics of a trait resulting from the genotype.

Dominant Trait

A trait that is physically expressed even if only one dominant allele (represented by an upper-case letter) is present.

Recessive Trait

A trait that is only physically expressed if two recessive alleles (represented by lower-case letters) are present.

Homozygous

An individual that has two of the same alleles for a particular gene, such as $RR$ or $rr$.

Heterozygous

An individual that has two different alleles for a particular gene, such as $Rr$.

Punnett Square

A grid used to show all possible types of offspring and their likelihood resulting from a mating between two parents.

Co-dominance

A form of inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygous genotype are expressed equally in the phenotype, such as in AB blood typing.

Antigens

Proteins on the surface of red blood cells that determine whether blood is type A, B, AB, or O.

Kinship

Systems that refer to relationships people have with each other, the knowledges they are responsible for, and their responsibilities to Country.

Moiety

A foundation of kinship where everything is considered half of a whole, ensuring individuals belong to one of two groups and marry from the opposite group.

Totem

Representations of nation, clan, family group, and person that are protected and passed on to the next generation.

Skin Name

A sequential system based on lineal descent that indicates a person's bloodline and defines who they are allowed to marry.