Stones & Bones Exam #3

Holocene

era of time that all modern humans currently occupy, an interglacial period

Entering the New World

Bearing Land Bridge

a strip of land connecting Alaska with Russia that emerged from underwater around 38,000 BC

Migratory Routes: Terrestrial: between ice sheets (Laurentide and Cordilleran)

- western ice sheet: cordilleran

- eastern ice sheet: laurentide

- ice sheets did not meet/fuse

-ice free corridor: tundra between unfused glaciers' may represent a migratory N/S route

CRITQUE:

- corridor: rugged terrain with limited vegetation; poor resources for animals + humans

Migratory Routes: Coastal Route: along Pacific shores, avoiding continental ice sheets

- coastal routes possibly used before ice sheets would recede: 14.7K

CRITIQUE:

- coastal sites are submerged and now inaccessible, thus uninvestigated

- no direct evidence for sea mammal hunting in this time

- sea faring technology largely unknown in this period (Santa Rosa Island: 13K human skeleton)

NAGPRA

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: mandates the determination of the cultural affiliation of skeletal remains and cultural objects

NAGPRA + Kennewick Man

- a classic example of how Native American concerns clash with scientific community

- Kennewick man: male, 45-50 years old at time of death

- dated to about 9K; stone point imbedded in right hip (ilium)

- wound occurred decades before death

- 2002 court ruled that KM was not related to any living Native American group, thus NAGPRA had no legal claim

- 2015: DNA demonstrates that KM is more closely to Native Americans than any other group

- 2017: KM returned to Native American officials and buried with ceremony

Clovis Culture Complex

Clovis = big game hunters. but also took smaller game such as deer, rabbits, muskrats, etc

- clovis named after the type-site in Clovis, New Mexico

- our knowlege of Clovis mostly comes from kill sites rather than habitations

- Band level societies:

- groups of less than 50 people

- mobile nomadic lifestyle, non-sedentary

- no domestic architecture

Clovis Culture Complex: Lithic technology + lithic caches

- stone material = local, nearest source for others was sometimes hundreds of miles away

- Clovis points (spears, not arrows) took down mega-fauna (mammoth and mastodon):

- large and thin: lance/spear

- bifacially worked

- concave bases

- fluted channels

---> experiemental archaeology: Clovis point production was time and labor intensive

---> evidence for continual re-sharpening

- valuable items: repair rather than replace

Naco Site: mammoth kill associated with Clovis points

- Arizona, 13-12.5K

- mammoth remains with 8 clovis points imbedded in skeleton

- anatomical locations of Clovis points: (1 point unknown position)

-base of skull (1 point)

-scapula/shoulder blade (1 point)

-ribs and verts (4 points)

- between axis and atlas verts (1 point)

- animals may have been wounded + escaped before dying later

Anzik Site: Clovis child burial

- burial 12.6K; clovis skeleton

- cache of 112 Clovis artifacts

- found in a shallow put near back of rock-shelter (stacked like playing cards)

- associated with remains of a small child (12-18 months old)

- skeleton + artifacts (stone and antler) covered in red ochre

- social status: achieved vs ascribed

Folsom Complex

-represents the next major Paleoindian cultural phase; big game hunters (bison); not megafauna

- Folsom points (spears, not arrows):

- thin and bi-facially worked flakes

- pronounced fluting

- flute: longer and wider channel than Clovis

- artifact seriation

Purpose of PaleoIndian Lithic Fluting

- experimental archaeology: successful replication of Folsom and Clovis fluting

- purpose of fluting is unknown; method of manufacture is understood but not its function

Explanations for Fluting:

- deeper penetration into animal

- hafting onto a bone or wooden shaft

- better able to withstand forceful impact

- form of artistic expression (trade commodity)

Folsom Complex: economy focused on bison rather than megafauna (mastodon/mammoth)

- Folsom peoples flourished after mega-faunal extinction events; did not hunt mammoth or mastodon

- strategies mainly centered on bison:

- smaller game also taken (deer, rabbit)

- pronghorn antelope blood found on Folsom point

Cooper Site, Oklahoma

- Folsom Complex communal bison kill, 11K

- animals herded over and into an arroyo

- three layers of bone beds = three separate kill episodes

- Red paint forming a lightning bolt, or zig zag, on bison skull

- earliest known painted object in North America

- ceremonialism and ritual observance of the hunt

Weaponized Landscapes: Casper Site

- Wyoming; Hell Gap Culture: 8K

- a sand dune trap; hundreds of feet in length and width; 50 ft deep

- communal efforts requiring >70 people

- large bison bone bed (MNI = 74)

- multiple kills separates by short period of time; stratigraphy

- bison's attempts to flee compromised by deep sand; easy prey for nearby hunters

Olson-Chubbuck Site - arroyo/gully

- Colorado; 8.5K

- excavations established profile of the arroyo (opening in the land)

- arroyo = archaeological feature (aspect of the landscape); assisted in entrapment of animals

What Survives: Plant Remains Contexts

- found in ceramic vessels

- found on floors

- found as stomach contents

What Survives: Plant Remains Significance

- domestic cultivation vs wild

- dietary preferences

- season and environment

Old World Plant Domestication

- Near East- 9K: wheat (emmer and einkorn) + barley

- Eastern Asia- 9K: rice and millet

- Pro: more readily available food

- con: land clearance (removes/diminishes wild animal habitats)

New Word Plant Domestication

- Mexico - 10K: squash

- Mexico - corn (maize) from teosinte (wild progenitor)

- 5.5K: directly dated corn cobs

- 9K: maize-like plants derived from teosinte

- Florentine Codex 16th century c. CE

- North America - sunflowers, 5K

- South America - potatoes, 5.4K

- residue analysis on tools

- potatoes do not preserve (no pits or cobs)

Micro-botanical Evidence

- focuses on smaller things: residue, not visible

- pollen and residues

- adheres to artifacts, teeth, or inside bodies

- Phytoliths:

- particles of silica of specific parts of the plant (root, stem, or flower)

- sickle-blade sheen (white parts of ridge part of blade)

Macro-botanical Evidence

- things large enough to see and collect by hand

- seeds, plant fibers, wood, nuts, pits

- Tel Miqne-Ekron, Israel: Olive Oil Production:

- 8-7th c. BCE

- >100 installations produced 1000 tons of olive oil per year

- thousands of olive pits (macro botanical)

- largest olive oil production center in ancient world

Artifactual: Ancient Bread

- bread molds in ancient Egypt, 6K

- Molds mostly from funerary contexts (like ofrendas)

- dough textures ranged from fine to meaty

- flavored additives: coriander seeds, honey, butter, eggs, oil, herbs, fruit, dates

Florentine Codex (16th c. CE)

A document that is a major source of information on Aztec history and culture; compiled soon after the spanish conquest of the Aztecs, complied by Fray Bernardino de Shagun in 1550's based on interviews, main source in Nahuatl about the events of the Spanish conquest

Agriculture: Initial Changes

- increased population/site size (was it a response to or a symptom of a growing population? people were living together in larger and larger communities)

- populations became more sedentary (more anchored to the land, not moving around; growing a community, less mobile)

- promoted greater division of labor

- decline in overall health (people were dying younger)

Why Initial States of Food Production Led to Declining Health

- foragers followed a more varied diet (plants + animals)

- farmers ran risk of malnutrition or starvation if crops failed

- increased population brought people into greater contact with one another (more susceptible to parasitic and infectious diseases)

Animal Based Foods: Zooarchaeolgy

- the study of animal remains that have been recovered from archaeological sites

- animal remains include:

- bones, teeth, shells, marine and freshwater mollusks, turtle/tortoise, bird eggs

- beyond diet; herd management, rituals, trade (finding animals in areas that are far beyond their expected range; how did they get there?), seasonality (different cross-sections in the teeth, seasons of birth, what time of year where these animals used/exploited), social status, group identity/affiliation, etc.

Methods: Washing Bones

- wash bones with water and scrub brush

- clean bone surfaces allow one to recognize:

- body-part diagnostic features

- species-specific diagnostic features

- modifications, etc.

Methods: Identification

-species: what kind of animal?

- body part - which bone is it?

- general skeletal biology is similar to many species

- bones vary between species by size and shape

- diagnostics = bone identification

- how to identify which bone it is? how to identify animal species?

- compare archaeological sample to modern skeletal collections (similar yet different enough to identify)

Methods: Metric Data

1. species Identification: size range

2. sex of the animal - sexual dimorphism: males usually larger than females

3. wild or domestic status: wild animals: larger than domestic counterparts (humans make those decisions; they will select smaller body sizes bc they're easier to handle + need less food)

Methods: Age at Death: Long Bone Fusion

- age = identifies targeted commodities

- primary (meat) or secondary (dairy, traction) products

- fusion (ossification) occurs at known rates

- fusion rates vary by:

- species, which bone, location on bone (proximal or distal)

Methods: Age at Death: Dental Wear

-mortality profiles:

- age at death may indicate production strategies:

- primary production: meat

- high occurrence of juveniles (up to about 12 months old) ---> younger animals have tender meat

- secondary products: wool (sheep), hair (goats), and traction (cattle)

- more mature specimens than juveniles

- secondary products: dairy (cattle, sheep, goats, camels)

- high occurrence of mature female specimens

Methods: Modifications

- burned remains

- butchery marks

- pathologies

- animal access

Early Hominin Diet: Olorgeailie, possible baboon hunting by H. erectus

- Olorgeailie, Kenya, 400-700K

- baboons, MNI = 90

- possible slaying + butchering of non-human primates by H. erectus; acheulian tools found with baboon remains (incident of hominins involved with predation on a primate

- age based selection: 76 juveniles, 14 young adults (they left behind the less meaty, nutritious parts)

Animal Domestication (animals that come under human control

- dog (near East/Europe): greater than 11K

- sheep (near East): 9K

- Goat (Near East): 9K

- Cattle (Near East): 9K

- Pig (Near East): 8K

- Later domesticated species: donkey, horse, camel after 6K

- less frequently exploited as food source

- transported people, supplies, information

- agricultural activities: traction

- domestication: goat horn cores

Fish: Nile Perch

- traded from Egypt

- can grow over 1.5m long, >300 lbs

- fish only available in Egypt; very picky/fragile species (HUGE FISH)

- Nile Perch exported through E. Med

- Export began by at least 4th M. BCE

- NP beyond Egypt: temples, grave, cities, rural villages, coastal ports, + islands

Social Archaeology

- provides a more detailed picture of life in the past

- attempts to idenify modes of political organization:

- bands, tribes/segmentary societies, chiefdomes, states/civilization

Band Societies

The basic social units in many hunting-and-gathering societies, characterized by being kinship based and having no permanent political structure

- 20-30 people

- highly mobile, seasonal movement

- high value on sharing + cooperation

- Egalitarian, no formal leader

- Examples: Paleolithic (Europe), North American Paleo-Indians

State Level Societies

- state systems, more political and organized

- most formal and complex form of political organization

- population - 20,000 + living in cities

- powerful ruler/leader with access to standing army

- state = civilization

- culture + civilization no necessarily interchangeable

- civilization = only represents one kind of culture

- not all cultures of civilizations (a form of political organization)

Characteristics Shared by Most Ancient States

- centralized capital city collects taxes

- administrative organized

- recruit for military/public labor

- monumental architecture

- social inequality; social class distinction

- Literacy (writing; archives

Implements of State Administration

- written documents

- administrative sealings

- standardizes weights and measurements

- road systems

- military power

Literary: Proto-Cuneiform Texts

- 3500 BCE

- cuneiform: a script, not a language

- world's oldest writing system

- earliest languages: Sumerian + Akkadian

Literary: Cuneiform Texts

- Ur (Iraq) - 280 tablets: 2800 BCE

- Lagash (Iraq) - 1500 tablets: 2400 BCE

- Ebla (Sytria) - 3600 tablets: 2400 BCE

how are cuneifrom texts different from proto-cuneiform?

- different languages: Sumerian (proto-cuneiform), Akkadian (cuneiform)

- cuneiform: standardized format (signs arranged in columns)

- more detailed subject matter: economic, legal, admin, royal deeds

Rosetta Stone

- found during Napeleonic Egyptian campaign (1799) in Egypt delta region

- key to reading ancient hieroglyphics

- rosetta stone: decree from Ptolemy V (196 BCE) written in three different languages: Trilingual inscription

- top section - hieroglyphics, unknown (same message in all three sections)

- middle section - demotic, a known language

- bottom section - greek, a known language

Mortuary Stele of Katumuwa, 735 BCE

- Kataumuwa = high ranking local official

- complete inscription: expands understanding of an Sam'alian (ancient language)

- destination of the soul

- ". . . a ram for my soul that is in this stele"

- reflects belief system

Phaistos Disc

Disk of fired Clay form Minoan palace, its purpose remains unknown.

- minoan artifact

- not all ancient documents can be read

- PD found in 1908 at Phaistos, Crete: 1850 - 1600

- Clay disk 16cm in diameter, 2 cm thick

Authenticity:

- appeared in official archaeological report

- not a modern forgery

- found near other datable artifacts

- scribal error (unlikely if hoaxed)

- signs appear on other artifacts

Phaistos Disc - Scribal Error

- Side A: Section 4 + 5

- dividing line erased and added at uncharacteristic angle

- done to make room for two other symbols (face a person + circle with holes)

- double-sided

- 200+ characters, 45 signs

- characters are impressed, not incised

Phaistos Disk: Similarities with other Minoan Artifacts

- a gold ring (found in 1926, + 18 years) with a spiral text arrangement

- inscribed bronze axe (found in 1934, + 26 years)

- a clay admin seal impression (found in 1955, +47 years)

State Administration: Military

- access to a standing army

- battle scenes depicted on Neo-Assyrian reliefs

- weapons: axes, daggers, swords

- metal weapons (bronze/iron)

- Defensive architecture (bronze age Mycenae, Greece)

- weapons ancient near east 2nd millennium (BCE):

- "duck-bill" axe head (hollowed for wooden handle

- daggers (short tang with rivet holes)

- swords (variable length: 40-110cm), typology/seriation, stone mold

State Administration: Military: Battle of Qadesh, 1275 BCE

- Qadesh; modern day Syria

- Fronier zone between empires: Hittite and Egypt

- one of the best documented battles in the ancient world

- 1st reference to tactics and formations

- largest chariot battle ever fought (5,000 - 6,000 chariots)

- 1254 BCE: the earliest peace treaty ---> led to 70 years of peace

Social Ranking in States

- luxury items: only accessible to members of local elite

- fine pottery wares: Minoan pottery 15th century BCE

- precious materials: (metals, stones, ivory)

- Megiddo, Israel: 13th c. BCE, Canaanite ivory cosmetic box lid + gaming board with gold disk inlays

- monumental architecture

Old World General Groups: Egyptian 4th Dynasty Pyramids

- 27-25th c. BCE

- for the first time Egyptian kings claim to be the "son of Ra" = divine kingship

- proclamation coincides with monumental architecture (scale = size + frequency)

- Cheop's (Khufu) pyramid construction:

- 146cm tall, 230m side length

- 2.3 million blocks

Workmen's Cemetery at Giza

- artistic scenes showing monumental architectural construction does not indicate forced labor (no whips)

- labor force consisted of conscripted peasants working with trained architects

- the state paid their workers and supplied them with food and clothes

- many men, most aged 30-35 years

- not mummified = lower status

- occupational hazards: arthritis, limb fractures/breakage, amputation

- titles: "director of the draftsmen," "inspector of the craftsmen"

- tombs protected by curse-spells

Royal Egyptian Burial: Tutankhamun (KV 62), 14th Century BCE

- discovered by Howard Carter in 1922

- funded by George Herbert aka Lord Carnavon

- preservation of finds ---> this is why he is so important/famous (ex. old feather fan)

- has been sealed off from environment ---> tomb + dry

Valley of the Kings, Thebes

- King Tutankhamun = Tomb KV 62

- Tut was king by 8 or 9 years old (he probably wasn't the one making the decisions --> royal court)

- died in teens during year 9 of reign

- physical remains of mummy

- wine offerings, vintage does not exceed year 9

Spatial Layout of KV 62: Passage

- entry passage: 2m wide x 8m long

- Harry Burton - project photography

- Tomb robbed at least twice

- 5000 artifacts, required 8 years to document + remove

Spatial Layout of KV 62: Antechamber

- wooden beds with carved animal heads

- disassembled chariots

- two trumpets, one played in 1939

- looking right; toward burial chamber

- entrance to burial chamber guarded by two sentires

Wooden Sentries from Antechamber:

- portraits of king: royal headdress

- mace symbolizing power + authority (used as a weapon)

- meteoric iron dagger blade (weapon was made of iron; the iron age hadn't started yet; where did they get it from?)

- walking staff

Spatial Layout of KV 62: Burial Chamber

- the only plastered and painted chamber in Tut's Tomb

- Amduat Texts: texts that relate to belief systems in Egypt (the king unites with Ra, the sun god; nightly adventure + rejuvenation)

- large floorless gold covered wooden shrine:

- 1st outer shrine: 5.1 x 3.3m, 2.8m high

- inscribed with extracts from Book of the Dead ---> inscribed to provide protection from anyone who took anything/disturbed them + curses

- middle section of rood interior assembled wrong (hastily constructed?)

Burial Chamber: Second Outer Wooden Shrine

- covered in gold leaf

- includes protective spells

- unbroken seal on entrance of 2nd shrine

Burial Chamber: third and fourth (innermost) wooden shrines

- goddesses represent principal mourners

- spaces between shrines contained artifacts: bows, arrows, fans, paddles, etc.

Sarcophagus of Tutankhamun

- inside 4th (innermost) shrine; decorated with winged goddesses

- carved from single block of quartzite

- granite lid may reflect hurried installation:

- mismatched materials (lid = 1.25 tons)

- damaged/cracked

Outer Coffin of Tutankhamun

- three coffins found inside quartzite sarcophagus

- outer coffin: varying thickness of gold foil over wood

- toe of outer coffin was hacked to ensure fit within sarcophagus: design flaw

2nd (middle) Coffin of Tutankhamun

- covered in a burial shroud of linen

- Nemes headdress:

- gold leaf over wood

- inscribed silver tenons hold coffin lid to coffin base with engraved cartouche

3rd (innermost) Coffin of Tutankhamun

- body covered with red linen, face exposed

- shoulders covered with leaves, flowers, + berries sewn onto a papyrus collar (macro-botanical remains)

- solid gold (269 lbs), lapis + obsidian

- base decorated with protective image of winged isis

Gold Death Mask of Tutankhamun

- gold, lapis, obsidian, quartz, and blue glass

- traditional symbolism: Nemes headdress and cobra/vulture

- back inscribed with protective spells

Tutankhamun: Nested Coffins and Shrines

Preparations for Burial:

1. head cleanly shaven

2. head/face stuck firmly to mask (carefully removed with hot knives)

- embalming wound found on lower abdomen (spots of natron: hydrated sodium carbonate residue from embalming process)

- brain removed from skull (hood through nose)

- eyes and nostrils plugged with resin-soaked fabric

- ribs removed to extract internal organs for separate embalming and replaced with bundles of cloth; heart is missing (was never found)

- penis bound in erect position; emphasize regenerative powers

Tutankhamun's Body

- estimated height = 165cm (5'4)

- same height as two guardian statues in antechamber flanking entry to burial chamber

- age at death: 16-19 years (dental eurption sequence and rate of long bone fusion; ossification)

- ailments: fractured femur, inflammation, curved spine, degenerative condition in foot and toes (may explain presence of over 100 canes)

Cause of Death?

- evidence for malaria, ailments with possibly reduced immune system

- precise cause not yet determined

Funerary Items Intended for Another?

- significant recycling of objects from earlier kings, 80% of the burial equipment

- mainly Akhenaten and Smenkhkare

3. second outer wooden shrine

- re-inscribed cartouches: Tutankhamun written over a different name, possibly Akhenaten

4. Canopic Chest

- Tut's name overlaps name of Smenkhkare

- poorly fitted lid, perhaps not originally to the chest

5. sarcophagus

- mismatched lid (material)

6. coffins

- varying facial features, 2nd coffin may have been fro Smenkhkare

Early (unexpected?) Death of Tutankhamun? Proposal to Suppiluliumas (Hittite King)

- why is Suppiluliumas suspicious?

- Egypt never allowed their royal women to marry foreigners

- husband of Egyptian queen = king: foreigner on Egyptian throne

- they were people just like us

Complete Replacement Model

Homo sapiens moved from Africa to Europe and did NOT breed with existing hominids

- Homo sapiens sapiens migrated out of Africa, encountered local Neandertal populations that were already situated

Partial Replacement Model

Proposes that modern humans expanded out of Africa, but there was interbreeding among the modern humans and region premodern populations. There is DNA evidence to support this.

- assumes interbreeding occurred between Hss and Neandertals

- interbreeding led to eventual replacement of archaic forms

- supportive evidence: some Hss remains exhibit apparent hybrid features; Neandertal genes (1-4%) found in non-African Hss genome (indicates some interbreeding); temporal and spatial overlap between Hsn + Hss (together at same place/time)

Shanidar (Iraq) - cut on rib

- Shanidar III with wound on left R9 (false rib) from a weapon; sufficient to puncture a lung

- experimental archaeology: created modern replicas of stone weapons, tested against pig carcasses

- thrusting spears: inflicted damage, multiple rib breakages

- projectile points: left distinct cuts to ribs without injuring surrounding bones (more closely resembled Shanidar III)

- Neandertals did not develop projectile weaponry (modern humans did ---> atlatls)

- suggests Shanidar III was killed by projectile fired by Hss (partial support for complete replacement model)

Early Data

Morocco (300K); Omo I, Ethiopia (195K); Cro-Magnon, France

- possible burials: bodies found with artifacts, ecofacts, and red ochre

Skhul Cave, Israel

- dates to 130-100K

- cranial and dental characteristics:

-reduced prognathism

- parabolic dental arcade

- no diastema

- centered foramen magnum

- minor post-orbital constriction

Technology: Blade-Based Tools

modified flake at least 2x as long as wide; bifacially modified flakes

Technology: Burin-Engravers

useful for making needles/awls for working on leather and textiles (clothing)

- burin: bladed tool that cuts narrow grooves into bone/wood/antler

- parallel engravings allow for detachment of slivers

Technology: Microblades

thin blades reduced into smaller pieces; cemented (resin) into a grooved section of wood, bone, or antler

- creates a tool with replaceable cutting edges

- composite tool: artifact made of different materials

Technology: Hafting

fitting a handle/shaft onto a stone tool

- composite tool: spears, atlatls, arrows

- used by AM sapiens + Neandertals (possibly Homo heidelbergensis)

- handle/shaft = an extension of the arms

- stone is harder than wood, maximize damage to target

- Schoningen wooden spear tips were fire-hardened

Technology: Atlatl

spear/dart-thrower: a projectile delivery system

- functioned as an extension of one's arm

- added more thrust/range to a spear/dart tipped with a stone or bone point

- modern atlatl: over 800ft

- caused occupational stress in shoulder joint (glenoid fossa of scapula)

Technology: Archery

Fa-Hein Lena Cave, Sri Lanka:

- 48K bone arrow points

- breakage consistent with high velocity impacts

Sibudu Cave, South Africa:

- 64K; stone (quartz) arrowheads

- breakage locations on points: hafted

- trace elements of: blood and bone (prey), resin, plant-based glue for hafting

Portable Art

engraved/carved/drilled animal remains (ex. bone, teeth, antler)

- engraved limestone slabs

- female "Venus" figurines (carved stone)

Non-Portable Art

paintings/etchings inside caves; clay sculpture

Cave Art: Technique, Subject, Placement

- etched, painted, or rubbed with charcoal

- located in areas difficult to access (cave ceilings, confined spaces)

- most subjects are animals: carnivores, herbivores, birds, some humans (bodies, hands, faces)

Cave Art: Stone Lamps

- some images occur in dark inaccessible places; far from cave entrance

- stone objects with circular depressions in cave sites

- residue analysis; animal fat

- experimental archaeology: stone lamps produce 1/6th candlelight

- emitted enough light to paint/engrave

- why not use torches? do not last as long + produces smoke (confined areas are poorly ventilated)

Le Trois Freres Cave, France: The Sorcerer

- location difficult to access: 4m above cave floor

- Anthropomorphic figure with zoomorphic traits (human with animal-like traits); the only figure etched and outlined in black charcoal in the sanctuary of the cave (sanctuary consists of 280 additional images of animals)

- the only sanctuary image with face towards the viewer

- possible shaman wearing a mask and costume while performing a dance or ritual (ethnography: religious leaders/shaman often wear elaborate costumes for rituals)

Le Marche, France: Engraved Limestone Slabs

- undecorated cave walls (>3000 engraves limestone slabs)

- images of animals (multiple animals could indicate movement) + images of humans

- multiple artists of varying skills (art workshop?)

- 155 human figures (isolated heads, others with entire bodies)

- 4x as many females as males; different age classes; articles of clothing (hats, robes, belts, boots)

Possible Reasons for Art

expression, religion, sympathetic hunting magic, group identity/boundary maintenance

- images assumed to be magical rites to promote hunting success (sympathetic magic: like produces/affects like)

Paleolithic Textiles

bone and ivory needles and awls made with bruins

- cold, harsh climates require warm clothing

Sunghir, Russia (24K):

- preserved impressions/imprints of clothing

- decorated with ivory beads woven into fabric

Graves in Sunghir, Russia (24K)

- one of the earliest elaborate AM sapiens graves in Europe

- double child burial: boy (aged 12-13 at death) + girl (aged 9-10 at death)

- covered in red ochre, mammoth ivory beads/spears

- young girl: pathological condition since birth (shortened and bowed femurs)

Achieved Social Status

a social status a person gains through their own efforts; something done during one's life recognized by others

Ascribed Social Status

a social status a person is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily in life; relates to birth-right rather than accomplished deeds: Sunghir children