ENR 4450 Exam 1

Policy

Formal authorization of decisions

Intent

Proposals

Processes by which actors make decisions

process and cycle

Policy as a ….

Agenda setting

Ex: reduce climate-exacerbated wildfire risk by reforming fire policy

Policy design

Ex: ‘Let’s not suppress all wildfires’

Policy legitimation

Ex: Define conditions under which certain wildfires are allowed to burn

Policy implementation

Ex: update tactics and strategies for fire response and forest mgmt

Evaluation and learning

Ex: Consider updating guidelines for where fires can burn, pending feedback

Climate change policy

Climate mitigation + adaptation strategies

Governance + negotiations

Strategies + approaches aimed at achieving low-carbon + climate-resilient transformation

Economic, social, + political issues at stake in responding to cc

significiant challenges, stagnating

SDG 13 (climate action) status

Afghanistan, Haiti

Affluence ≠ progress

prescriptive

SDGs are not ____ (describe how to achieve these goals)

SDG 13 targets

13.1: increase resilience to climate-related natural hazards

13.2: integrate climate change adaptation into policy/planning processes

13.3: improve education + awareness of cc

13.a

Raise $100 b from wealthy countries for lower income countries

13.b

Increase capacity of lower income countries to develop + implement cc adaptation, planning, + mgmt

Economically marginalized, of color communities

Most impacted

1) energy 2) agriculture, forestry and land use

Global GG emissions by sector

1) industry 2) buildings 3) transport

energy top gg emissions

CC myths, distractions, misinfo

Overpopulation

Individual action

Net zero, offsets

Alternative fuels

Pessimism

Overpopulation

Plenty of resources for all, but not equal access to or consumption of resources

Individual action

Carbon footprint calc (started by BP)

Distracts from corporate resp

Burden shifted to YOU

Net zero

Does not mean zero emissions

Rather, canceling out emissions

Emissions “accounted for”

Carbon offsets are…

A reduction in GG emissions or an increase in carbon storage

Treats the symptom

60%

Of all CO2 captured in the US, ___ is used to extract more oil

Alternative fuels

Biofuels, hydrogen, cold fusion

Fail to treat the root—consumption

Biofuel problems

At best, climate neutral

Land could be used for growing food

Large amounts of water + other ag inputs req’d

Hydrogen problems

Doesn’t produce any CO2 when combusted BUT highly flammable

Big oil talking it up (sus)

Currently not economically viable

Pessimism

Fear employed by climate action opponents

low energy radiation

tends to get “stopped” by atmosphere

hindcasting

simulating models using historic data

evidence of enhanced GE

nighttime temps increasing faster than daytime temps

in urban areas, nighttime temps are up to 22 F hotter

climate modeling

divide globe into 3d cells

simulate physical interactions among neighboring cells over time

update parameters

downscale further w/ smaller, high res model

representative concentration pathways

various scenarios evaluating climate conditions

best and worst case

IPCC

RPCs, climate models, + more coordinated by

About IPCC

195 nations

group of gov’ts, not scientists

formed in late ‘80s

commissions scientific community (WGs) to develop reports

working groups

1) climate sci

2) climate impacts + adaptation

3) mitigation

IPCC reports

every 7ish years

most recent: 2022 6th Assessment Report

occasionally issues “special reports”

compiled by sci publications, drafted teams, stages of open review, authors respond to 1000s of comments

final report: 150 pgs

policymaker cut: 30 pgs

IPCC sci communication

calibrated uncertainty language

convey uncertainty w/o watering down impact of findings

1.5 C by 2030

warming likely to reach…

small difs, big effects

increased mean temp in most land + ocean regions

Higher probability for droughts in some regions, heavy precipitation in others

1.5 C vs 2 C

1.5: 4” less sea rise

Less species loss + extinction

Reduced impacts on ecosystem services

Less ocean acidification (less coral bleaching)

Potentially fewer, weaker hurricanes

Less severe societal impacts

Prospects for adaptation better at 1.5

To limit warming to 1.5 C

By 2030, CO2 emissions must decline by 45% from 2010

Must reach net-zero emissions by 2050

Rapid, large-scale system-level transitions

carbon dioxide removal

To enable large-scale transitions

Increase investments in adaptation + mitigation

Accelerate tech innovation

Widespread behavior changes

Policy innovation + exnovation

Empowering NGO actors

Engage civil society, private sector, indigenous peoples, + local communities

Meaningful engagement depends on int’l cooperation, esp between industrialized + developing nations

Policy instrument

Tools used by gov’ts to implement policies +/or shape behavior of people or orgs

PI types

Legislative/regulatory

Economic/fiscal

Agreement-based/cooperative

Info/communication-based

Legislative/regulatory instruments

Require or prohibit certain actions

Sanctions (e.g., fines) are used to enforce compliance

So-called “command and control” approaches to policy implementation

Economic/fiscal instruments

Certain behaviors incentivized, but are voluntary

Can correct market failures (e.g., create new market)

Possibly complex, costly implementation

Agreement-based/cooperative instruments

Voluntary agreements between gov’t + actors to behave in a certain way

Generally desirable, but subject to high transaction $ (negotiation, monitoring)

Info/communication-based instruments

Outreach campaigns + certification programs

Typically rely on media, may also include direct dialogue, public meetings, etc

Voluntary - risk it may be ignored, not widely accepted

Low, medium

Legislative/reg costs of implementation and enforcement

High, usually not necessary

Economic/fiscal costs of implementation and enforcement

High, high

Agreement/cooperative costs of implementation and enforcement

High, N/A

Info/communication costs of implementation and enforcement

Regulation

Rules, laws, + other directives that guide + shape the behavior of people, orgs, businesses, agencies, etc

Guidance formalized by language like; “shall”, “may”, “must”, etc

Mitigation regulations

Focus on mobile, stationary sources of GHG emissions

Actions of gov’t agencies

regulating GHG emissions in US

Massachusetts v EPA (2007)

West Virginia v EPA (2022)

Inflation Reduction Act v EPA (@022)

Massachusetts v EPA (2007)

EPA has authority to regulate GHG under Clean Air Act

West Virginia v EPA (2022)

Congress must authorize EPA to regulate GHG as pollutants

Inflation Reduction Act (2022)

GHGs considered pollutants again (bc the IRA was passed by Congress obvs)

Regulating GHG mobile sources

On-road vehicles - 2010: EPA, NHTSA issued 250 g/mile of CO2 for light vehicle standard

Non-road vehicles (lawnmowers, weedeaters, etc) -EPA sued for not setting any standards

Aircraft - EPA has authority to set standards… Currently, airlines participate in int’l agreements

Carmakers + tailpipe emissions

2008: Obama admin set 54.5 miles/gal by 2025

2016: Trump era, automakers easing of rules

2018: Trump rolls back standards

2018: CA + 17 states sue EPA to reinstate Obama standards

2019: Trump admin revokes CA’s authority to set emissions stricter than federal standards (literally the point of the US + states’ rights)

2019: Amid CA + Trump beef, 4 automakers signed a deal w/ CA to abide by stricter standards

2019: DoJ investigate whether this voluntary negotiation violates antitrust laws

2020: CA finalizes agreement w/ 5 automakers

2022: CA announces plans to phase sale of gas vehicles by 2035

2025: Congress revoked CA’s authority to do that

2026: Senate introduced repeal CA emissions rules

2026: CA continuing to mount legal challenges

Regulating GHG stationary sources

Responsible for vast majority of emissions - 73%

Includes:

• Powerplants (coal 25% alone)

• Petroleum refineries

• Heavy manufacturing facilities

• Landfills

Electricity production

Clean Power Plan (2015) goal of emissions reduction by 32% by 2030, litigation tied CPP in court

Repealed in 2017

2020: enviro groups + 22 states filed stricter emissions standards

2022: SCOTUS ruled the CPP exceeded EPA authority to regulate GHG under CAA

2022: IRA amended CAA, defining GHGs as pollutants

Refineries + heavy industry

Since est, EPA has issued extensive guidelines to regulate pollutants from refineries under CAA

Prior to current Trump admin, EPA was finalizing guidelines for CO2 + methane

Original deadline was 2012—has been pushed back 4 times

2026: EPA released final rule weakening methane standards

municipal solid waste landfills

~17% of US methane emissions

2016: EPA issued separate guidelines to reduce methane emissions

Guidelines then challenged by corporate interests

2021: EPA reinstated 2016 standards

Regulating gov’t agencies

NEPA main framework for how fed agencies should consider enviro impacts of their actions

2016-2025: White House Council on Enviro Quality issued guidance in how GHG emissions should be considered in NEPA process

Emissions regulations function

Dif mechanisms:

design- or performance-based

product- or process-oriented

public- or private-oriented

Design-based

regulated entities must adopt a particular practice

ex. catalytic converter

Performance-based

Entities must achieve a certain goal, means not specified

Ex. increase avg fuel economy to 51 mpg by 2026

More common, typically more efficient

EPA req’d by law to use whenever possible

product-oriented

focus on a particular product + its emissions

ex. cars (?), energy star certification (?)

process-oriented

emphasis on emissions associated w/ production of good

ex. LEED certification for buildings

public-oriented

focus on GHG emissions from individual actions

ex. major appliances must meet min energy-efficiency standards

private-oriented

focus on GHG emissions from businesses

ex. LEED certification

status of US emissions regulations

No comprehensive, singular regulatory framework

Constantly newly introduced, revoked, legally challenged…

Advantages of regulations

Means of addressing market failures + inefficiencies when free markets do not resolve them

→ Corrects failure of market to address social cost of emissions

Provide a strong mechanism to ensure compliance + limit non-compliance

Disadvantages of regulations

Incur costs, borne by industries + individuals

Often do not incentivize innovation → esp true w/ design-based standards

taxes, trading schemes

economic tools for putting a price on GHG emissions

Tax

Sets a price on pollution

Trading scheme

sets a cap on the amount of pollution allowed

determined by the gov’t

Taxes and trading scheme amounts are…

market

In the case of trading schemes, the ____ determines the price of pollution after the cap is set

the costs of climate change impacts

Current economic activities do not account for…

By increasing the price of carbon

We would consume less fossil fuels, resulting in less carbon emissions, + ultimately lessening the impacts of cc

Would actually reflect social cost

carbon taxes emissions

volume of emissions determined by market forces

carbon taxes price

set by tax (increases over time)

trading schemes emissions

emissions cap set by gov’t (declines over time)

trading schemes price

determined by market (free hand)

Carbon taxes

Top down approach

Market-based instrument

Emissions tax or tax on carbon-intensive goods

Generate public revenues

upstream

emissions tax, i.e. taxing the quantity of GHG being produced

downstream

carbon-intensive goods (e.g., gasoline)

carbon tax design

fee imposed on the burning of carbon-based fuels

complex, requires upfront research, ongoing monitoring, evaluation, periodic adjustments

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