ford's quizlet unit 2

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

Dependent variable

what is being measured

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

constancy

the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

binocular disparity

the difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

method if loci

using locations to remember a list of items in order

tip of the tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

sunk cost fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

amnesia

loss of memory

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

chronological age

Age as measured in years from date of birth

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Steroetype threat

the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype - can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

just noticeable difference

the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

context effects on memory

context such as environment, mood, or influence of chemicals can impact how easily something is recalled from memory.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned