Psych Unit 2

Encoding

The process where information is put in a form that can be understood and stored by the brain

Storage

The process of turning information into memories to be stored by the brain. Duration of storage depends on system used

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of storage to be used

Information Processing Model

Claims that the brain processes information like a computer

Levels of Processing Model

information that is more deeply processed usually according to meaning. The more meaningful the memory to longer it will be stored

Parallel Distributed Processing Model

all 3 stages of memory formation occur at the same time

Sensory memories

memories from raw information from senses that last a fraction of a second

Iconic memory

visual sensory information that lasts a fraction of a second

Eidetic memory

photographic memory

Echoic imagery

auditory information that lasts 2-4 seconds

Short term memory

Lasts for 30 seconds and has limited capacity

Maintenance rehearsal

the repetition of information to commit it to STM

Selective attention

The ability to focus on selected stimuli whilst disregarding all other stimulus

Working memory

System that processes STM

Digit Span Test

test of short term memory - can’t remember more than 6 numbers in a row

Chunking

the reorganization of information so that it is in an order that is easier to remember

Long Term Memory

No end to this memory

Elaborate rehearsal

Method of transferring information from the STM to the LTM by making the memory meaningful in some way

explicit/decclarative memory

memory that contains conscious information

episodic memory

personal information not readily available to others

Semantic memory

general knowledge, information about language and formal education

implicit/non-declarative memory

Non-conscious information but it impacts conscious behaviour

Semantic network model

information is stored in an organized way - like a library- so that like topics are closer to each other. Makes it easier to recall information

Retrieval Cues

The more retrieval cues stored with a piece of information, the easier the retrieval of that information will be

Encoding specificity

the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if retrieval conditions are similar to the conditions under which the information was encoded

Context dependent learning

refers to the physical surroundings a person is in when they are learning specific information

State-dependent learning

memories are formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state

Recall

type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be pulled from memory with very few external cues

“Tip of the tongue” phenomenon

struggling to recall information that is just under the conscious surface

Serial position effect

tendency for information at the beginning and end to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle

Recognition

ability to match a piece of information to a stored fact

False positive

Sometimes,  there is just enough similarity between a stimulus that is not already in memory and one that is in memory so that a false positive occurs

Automatic encoding

tendency for certain types of information to enter the long term memory with little or no encoding

Flashbulb memories

type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations

Constructive processing

referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information.

Hindsight bias

tendency to falsely believe that they would have accurately predicted an outcome without having been told about it in advance 

Misinformation effect

The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

Curve of forgetting

a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually. 

Distributed practice vs. massed practice

Distributed practice = spacing the studying of material and taking breaks to process information > massed practice = cramming

Reasons for forgetting

1) encoding failure

2) decay/disuse

3) Interference

What is Interference? What are the 2 types

Long term memories are not accessible because other information interferes in the retrieval cues.

1) Proactive - memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer information. 

2) Retroactive - memory problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information.

Consolidation

the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed. 

Hippocampus

the part of the brain that is responsible for the formation of new long- term declarative memories

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of injury backwards, loss of memories of the past

Anterograde Amnesia

Anterograde - the loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward. Inability to make new memories.  results from damage to the hippocampus area of the brain - leads to the inability to form long term memories 

Infantile amnesia

Inability to retrieve memories from before the age of 3

Alzheimer’s disease

primary problem in the beginning is anterograde amnesia, eventually retrograde amnesia sets in and past memories get erased 

Thinking

the mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organising or attempting to decipher information and communicating information with others

Mental images - mental representations that stand for objects and events that have a picture like quality

Concepts

ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples of the category. 

Prototypes

an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.

Problem solving

occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. 

Decision making

process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating and choosing among several alternatives

Methods of Problem solving

1) Trial and error/mechanical solution - one possible solution is tried after the other until a successful solution is found

2) Algorithm - specific step-by-step procedures for solving certain problems

3) Heuristics/Rule of thumb - An educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down possible solutions to a problem. Simple rule that is applied to a number of scenarios, used to simplify a problem.

4) Insight - the solution to a problem appears suddenly in your mind. An aha moment

Convergent thinking

type of thinking where problems only have one possible solution

Divergent thinking

a person starts at one point of thought and ends up with many different possibilities from that point

Creativity

Process of solving problems in new ways

What are the 3 problem solving difficulties

1) Mental set - people will continue using the same problem solving process because it has worked for them in the past, without realising it may not be the best solution

2) Functional fixedness - a block to problem solving by only thinking about an object in their typical use. Can’t think outside the box

3) Confirmation bias - tendency to find evidence that fits your biases whilst ignoring information that does not fit

Intelligence

Ability to learn from ones experiences, acquire knowledge, use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

What is Spearman’s theory of intelligene

2 different abilities. General intelligence (G factor) - ability to solve problems and reason, Specific intelligence (S factor) - task specific abilities

Gardner’s Theory

9 types of intelligence: Verbal/lignistic, Musical, Visual/Spatial, Logic, Movement, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist

Sternberg’s Theory

Triarchic theory of intelligence 3 types of intelligence; analytical, ability to break a problem down; creative, ability to come up with new solutions; practical, ability to use information in real life

mental age

or the average age at which children could successfully answer a particular level of questions.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

mental age/actual age *100. A 10 year old giving 15 year old answers = IQ of 150

Standardization

establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration

Validity

degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to

Reliability

test needs to produce consistent results each time it is administered

Intellectual disability

developmentally delayed, mental condition where someone exhibits the behaviour and cognitive process of a younger mental age

What are some of the causes of intellectual disability

1) Unhealthy living conditions - malnourishment

2) Exposure to toxins - lead, mercury  

3)Prenatal exposure to toxins/problems in pregnancy - fetal alcohol syndorme, damage in the womb, drug use during pregnancy, disease 

Giftedness

Terman’s research - only people with an above 180 IQ were more susceptible to mental illness and strange behaviours

Emotional Intelligence

the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as the ability to understand emotions in others

Heritability 

degree to which the changes in some trait within a population can be considered to be due to genetic influences

Twin studies

the greater the genetic match between two siblings the higher the correlation in IQ scores

Lanugage

System of combining symbols so that an infinite number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

Grammar

system of rules governing the structure and use of language

Syntax

system of rules combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences

Semantics

rules determining the meaning of words and sentences

Morphemes

smallest units of meaningful sound in language 

Phonemes  

basic units of sound in language 

Pragmatics

refers to the practical aspects of communicating with others

Intonation

refers to the rhythm and emphasis used when communicating with others

receptive-productive tag

children hear more language than they are able to reproduce

Piaget perspective

language is learned through egocentric methods, talking to oneself

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

language influences thoughts. Thought process is controlled by language

Cognitive universalism

concepts are universal and influence the development of language

Human development

the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age, from conception until death

Longitudinal research design

research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time. 

Cross-sectional

research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time. 

Cross-sequential

research design in which participants are first studied by means of  a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally.

Nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. 

Nurture

The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

DNA

a special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism. 

Gene

section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements. 

Dominant gene

the gene that actively controls the expression of the trait

Recessive gene

the gene that will only influence the expression of the trait when paired with an identical gene

Chromosome

Tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA.

Down syndrome

disorder where there is an extra chromosome present 

Kleinfelter Syndrome

extra chromosome in the sex gene so that the 23 chromosome is XXY - results in a man that presents female - tall man, obese, big breasts reduced male characteristics

Turner Syndrome

23rd pair is missing the X so results in short  infertile females that are sexually underdeveloped

Fertilization

union of the ovum and sperm