exam 4 immunology, osmoregulation, sexual reproduction

What is the primary function of the immune system in multicellular organisms?

To protect against pathogenic organisms.

What percentage of microbes are pathogenic?

Only a small percentage.

What types of pathogens can the immune system fight?

Viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, and parasitic animals.

What are the two main parts of the immune system?

Innate Immune System and Adaptive Immune System.

What are the characteristics of the Innate Immune System?

Nonspecific, no memory, and found throughout all animal and plant kingdoms.

What are the characteristics of the Adaptive Immune System?

Highly specific, has memory, and is found only in vertebrate animals.

What are some physical and chemical barriers of the Innate Immune System?

Skin, normal flora on skin, mucous and cilia in the respiratory tract, low pH of stomach, and antimicrobial peptides.

What is an antigen?

Anything that is foreign to the body and can trigger an immune response.

What are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)?

Markers on microbes that are recognized by the immune system.

What is the inflammatory response?

A response characterized by pain, heat, redness, and swelling due to increased vascular permeability.

What role do Natural Killer Cells play in the immune system?

They kill virus-infected or altered self-cells, such as tumor cells.

What types of cells are involved in the Adaptive Immune Response?

B cells and T cells (lymphocytes).

How long does it take for the Adaptive Immune Response to become upregulated?

Days to weeks.

What are antibodies?

Proteins made by B cells that recognize specific antigens.

What is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?

Antigen presenting molecules that help T cells recognize antigens.

What is the difference between MHC Class I and Class II?

MHC Class I is found on all nucleated cells, while MHC Class II is found on antigen presenting cells like B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages.

What are the three populations of T cells?

Helper T cells (TH), cytotoxic T cells (Tc), and T regulatory cells.

What is the function of Helper T cells?

They release cytokines to upregulate B cells and other immune cells.

What is the process called that allows for the diversity of B and T cell receptors?

Gene rearrangement.

What is lymph and its role in the immune system?

Lymph is a watery fluid that travels through lymph vessels and contains white blood cells; it helps detect foreign substances.

What happens during the Primary Immune Response?

Initial exposure to an antigen takes days to weeks for B and T cells to respond, resulting in memory cells that last for decades.

What is the Secondary Immune Response?

The faster response of memory cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.

How does vaccination relate to the immune response?

Vaccination initiates a Primary Immune Response, allowing the body to create memory cells against a pathogen.

What are some potential issues with the immune system?

Chronic inflammation, allergies, autoimmunity, and immunodeficiency.

What is autoimmunity?

When the immune system mistakenly recognizes self-antigens as foreign, leading to tissue damage.

What is an example of a primary immunodeficiency?

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID).

What is an example of an acquired immunodeficiency?

AIDS, resulting from HIV infection.

What triggers an allergic reaction?

An overreaction of the immune system to innocuous foreign substances.

Osmoregulation

process of maintenance of salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body's fluids

Both _____________and _______________contribute to the osmotic balance

electrolytes,

non-electrolytes

Important Cations

sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium

important Anions

chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, phosphate

Hypertonic solution

Water comes out of the cell without being replenished causing it to shrink

no enough water

Hypotonic solution

Water overflows into the cell without having a way coming out busting the cells

not nought solutes

Isotonic solutions

cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions

better balance of both water and solutes

Osmoregulators

mechanisms to adapt to a variety of environments

Osmoconformers

Internal environment is osmotic (same

osmotic pressure) relation to the external environment.

excretory system

Regulates body fluid concentrations

Concentration of mineral ions depend on what two ions

Sodium and potassium

Water can enter the body through:

drinking, food, metabolism

Where does water go:

it moves to the region with the lowest water concentration

Marine environment

• High concentration of dissolved salts

• Tends to promote the osmotic loss of water, and

• The gain of ions by drinking water

• Marine invertebrates nearly isotonic to seawater

• Blood of cartilaginous fishes contains enough urea to match the

tonicity of sea water

Freshwater environment

• Tends to promote a gain of water by osmosis, and

• A loss of ions as excess water is excreted

Where are the kidneys located?

either side of

vertebral column, just

below the diaphragm

what is the tube like structure that carries the urine from the kidneys to the bladder

ureter

Collects urine from the kidney to the

urinary bladder

Urine voided through

urethra (tube between bladder and exit)

Each kidney composed of

millions of tubular nephrons

Each nephron composed of several parts:

• Glomerular capsule

• Glomerulus

• Proximal convoluted tubule

• Loop of the nephron

• Distal convoluted tube

• Collecting duct

renal cortex

• Outer region

• Granular appearance

Renal medulla

• Cone-shaped renal pyramids

Renal pelvis

• Hollow-chambered innermost part of the kidney

Urine production requires three distinct processes:

• Glomerular filtration in glomerular capsule

• Tubular reabsorption at the proximal convoluted tubule

• Tubular secretion at the distal convoluted tubule

Most absorption occurs at the ____________________ ________________ in the Kidney

Proximal tubule

Excretion of hypertonic urine:

• Dependent upon the reabsorption of water

• Absorbed from

• Loop of the Henle

• The collecting duct

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin)

• Plays a role in water reabsorption

• Released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (brain)

Some unicellular (invertebrates) organisms excrete wastes by

Exocytosis

Exocytosis

release of substances out a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane.

Most animals (invertebrates) have

tubular excretory organs

What do excretory organs do?

• Regulate the water-salt balance of the body

• Excrete metabolic wastes into the environment

• Flame Cells

• Nephridia

• Malpighian Tubules

Planarians

Earthworms

Insects

Invertebrates

• Most are isotonic with water they live in

• Osmoconformers

Bony Fishes

• Body fluids of bony fishes with only moderate amount of salt

• Osmoregulators

• Some manage to adjust to both, salt and fresh water

(salmons), most cannot.

Cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays...)

• Achieve isotonicity by having high concentrations of organic

compounds (urea in blood)

Terrestrial (land) animals lose water through

excretion and

respiration

Where is sodium filtered?

filtered at glomerulus is returned to blood at the distal convoluted tubule

more than 99%

What regulates reabsorption

(both sodium and water )

bonus: what are the specific ___________, ____________________and __________

hormones

aldosterone, renin, Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

pH adjusted by either

• The reabsorption of the bicarbonate ions,

• The secretion of hydrogen ions

Hemodialysis

The clinical purification of blood by dialysis, as a substitute for the

normal function of the kidney.

Catabolism of amino acids and nucleic acids results

In ammonia

• High solubility (of ammonia) permits it to be excreted directly by many __________________ ___________________

• ______________ _________________ must convert ammonia to urea or uric

acid

aquatic animals

terrestrial animals

_______________ causes loss of much water per unit of nitrogen

Urea

• Mammals and amphibians

• Must drink lots of water

___________ ___________ requires much less water per unit of nitrogen

excreted

Urea acid

• Reptiles, birds, and arthropods

• Allows invasion of drier habitats far from standing water

Nitrogenous Waste is created in aquatic animals

proteins

|

amino acids

|

NH2

|

most fishes and other aquatic animals

|

Ammonia

Nitrogenous Waste is created in mammals

proteins

|

amino acids

|

NH2

|

adult amphibians,

sharks, and mammals

|

Urea

Nitrogenous Waste is created in birds

proteins

|

amino acids

|

NH2

|

Insects, birds, and

reptiles

|

Uric Acid

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced where

adrenal medulla

epinephrine and norepinephrine function

Can decrease kidney function temporarily by vasoconstriction

Renin produce where

kidney nephrons

Renin function

Increases blood pressure by acting on angiotensinogen

Angiotensin produced where

Liver

Angiotensin function

Angiotensin II affects multiple processes and increases blood

pressure

Aldosterone produce where

Adrenal cortex

Aldosterone function

Prevents loss of sodium and water

Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin) is produced where

Hypothalamus

(stored in the

posterior pituitary)

Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin) function

Prevent water loss

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is produced where

Heart atrium

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) function

Decreases blood pressure by acting as a vasodilator and

increasing glomerular filtration rate; decreases sodium reabsorption in kidneys

how hormones work (pathway)

angiotensin--- renin---angiotensin 1---ACE--- angiotensin 2---aldosterone and ADH

How many ways can species reproduce?

asexual

sexual

Hydras reproduce by

asexual

as an outgrowth

(bud) of the parent

flatworms reproduce by

asexual

by splitting in half

Sponges, annelids, and echinoderms reproduce by:

Both asexual and sexual

can have the ability to

regenerate from fragments

Parthenogenesis

mostly seen in Asexual reproducers

a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization

Sexual reproduction is

Egg of one parent fertilized by

sperm of another

Can sexual reproduction be performed external

true

1 multiple choice option

In sexual reproduction

Animals usually produce ___________

In specialized organs called ___________

gametes, gonads

Testes produce ________ , whereas ovaries produce ________

sperm , eggs

Copulation

sexual union to

facilitate reception of sperm

Most animals are _______________ = separate sexes

dioecious