Units 4 & 6: Political Ideologies, Beliefs, and Participation

Income and Occupation

Higher income - Historically more likely to be conservative; more likely to vote

Lower income - Historically more likely to be liberal and linked to union jobs

Education

More education - More likely to vote; Historically, more likely to be liberal, but this is changing

Sex and Gender

Women - more likely to be liberal and vote Democrat; Men - more likely to be conservative and vote Republican; Increasing gender gap.

Age

Young people - more likely to be liberal and less likely to vote

Older people - more likely to be conservative and more likely to vote

26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 (Vietnam War effect)

Religion

Christianity - Catholics more likely to vote for Democrats (but this may be changing due to the pro-life issue); White Protestants are more likely to vote for Republicans; Black Protestants are more likely to vote for Democrats; the more frequently a person goes to church, the more likely they are to vote for a Republican

Judaism - Jews are more likely to vote for Democrats; Islam - Muslims are more likely to vote for Democrats; Agnostics and Atheists are more likely to vote for Democrats

Race

White Americans are slightly more likely to vote for Republicans; Asian, Black, and Hispanic Americans are much more likely to vote for Democrats. Subgroups can differ (ex: Vietnamese Americans vote Republican and Cuban Americans vote Republican)

Location/Region

The closer a person is to a city, the more likely they are to vote Democratic. The South and Plains states tend to vote Republican; The coasts and Midwest tend to vote Democrat

Family and Friends

A person is very likely to take on the ideology of their parents (about 80% likely)

Ideological changes tend to come in early adulthood (if they come)

The earlier a person develops a political ideology, the more likely it is to stick long-term

Americans’ friends tend to be of similar political ideology, and this trend has increased in recent years (political polarization link)

Media

Many media sources lead to different ‘realities’ for Americans

Media sources differ in quality and ideology (some are neutral)

People gravitate toward their own preferred ideological news

Older people are more likely to access newspapers and television for political news

Younger people are more likely to access social media for news

People who primarily use social media generally have less political knowledge than people who use more traditional sources

Conservatives trust and use FOX, ABC, CBS, and Newsmax

Liberals trust and use MSNBC, CNN, the New York Times, and NPR

Trust in the media has decreased over time, especially for conservatives

Perceptions of Candidates

Personalities of candidates and how they come across can dramatically affect their appeal and affect who supports them - Who seems like they understand me?

Type of Election

About ⅔ of eligible voters do so in presidential election years; dramatically less for by-election years (no POTUS election). Varies by state - New England is higher and the South is lower

Engagement with Politics

People who do not care/do not feel strongly tend not vote; People who feel their vote does not matter tend not to vote; People who do not pay attention to politics tend not to vote

Special Events or Issues

Impactful events can influence ideology and voting behavior

Ex: Vietnam War, gas prices in the 1970s, 9/11; the COVID-19 Pandemic; Dobbs decision

Global Events

Foreign affairs can influence ideology/voting behavior Ex: Israel/Palestine conflicts; Ukraine war

Political Socialization

The process by which people develop their political values, beliefs, and attitudes (ideologies)

Conservative

Generally favors limited government intervention in the economy and strong national defense. Often socially traditional. Typically supports free market principles and traditional social values. Conservatives usually are Republicans

Liberal

Generally supports government intervention to achieve social and economic equality, civil rights protections, and environmental regulations. Typically favors progressive social policies. Liberals usually are Democrats

Centrist/Moderate

Political views fall between liberal and conservative positions, often taking a middle-ground approach to issues. Party-wise, a moderate may belong to either of the two major parties or to neither.

Libertarian

Advocates for maximum individual liberty in both economic and social matters, with minimal government intervention in either sphere.

Authoritarian/Statist

Supports a strong centralized government with significant control over economic and social affairs

Social Conservative

Advocates for traditional social values and moral standards, often opposing rapid social change

Fiscal Conservative

Someone who advocates for lower taxes, reduced government spending, and minimal government debt

Populist

A politician who relies on grassroots support and who prioritizes the needs and wants of everyday people

Party Identification

A person's psychological attachment to a political party.

Democratic Party

One of the two major U.S. political parties, generally associated with liberal policies and progressive social values. Some key facts:

• Oldest active political party in the country; Came to prominence in 1828 by supporters of Andrew Jackson

• Initially for states' rights, limited federal government, and farming interests

• Experienced a major split over slavery, and afterward dominated southern politics during Reconstruction. Modern identity took shape during the Progressive Era and was solidified under Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930s, when it embraced labor unions, civil rights, and social welfare programs.

• The party's support for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 led to a significant realignment - the "Solid South" while strengthening its position among minorities and urban voters.

• For the past thirty years, Democrats generally have pushed for progressive social policies, government intervention in the economy, environmental protection, and international cooperation. 

• Today's Democratic Party draws its strongest support from urban areas, young voters, racial minorities, women, and college-educated professionals, while championing causes such as healthcare access, climate change action, civil rights, and economic equality.

• Challenges: rural voter outreach, electoral college math, and conflict between its progressive and moderate wings.

• Symbol: Donkey (hard work, farming, and the common citizen)

Republican Party

One of the two major U.S. political parties, generally associated with conservative policies and traditional values. Some key facts:

• Founded in 1854 by anti-slavery activists; rose to power under Abraham Lincoln and led the Union through the Civil War.

• Dominated the last 1800s and stood for industrial development, protective tariffs, and business interests.

• In the early 20th century, Theodore Roosevelt and the party emphasized trust-busting, conservation, and business regulation.

• After WWII, Republicans have opposed government expansion and embraced free-market economic

• The party adopted the "Southern Strategy" under Nixon and attracting conservative Southern Democrats opposed to civil rights legislation.

• Ronald Reagan's presidency in the 1980s solidified the party's modern identity around free-market economics, social conservatism, strong national defense, and limited government.

• Since the 1990s, the party has advocated for tax cuts, deregulation, traditional social values, and a more unilateral foreign policy. 

• Today's Republican Party draws its strongest support from rural areas, evangelical Christians, white voters without college degrees, and business interests, while pushing for tax reduction, immigration restrictions, Second Amendment rights, and traditional social values.

• Challenges: Tensions between its traditional conservative wing and populist elements; urban and racial minority outreach.

• Symbol: Elephant (wisdom, memory, and tradition)

• Often referred to as the GOP (Grand Old Party)

Third Party

Any political party that seeks to challenge the two major political parties in the United States (Republicans and Democrats). Examples include the Green Party, The Libertarian Party, and the Constitution Party. Third parties have difficulty in our system due to the first-past-the-post voting system, difficulties getting on the ballot, money disadvantages, the ingrained two-party system, and the two-party oriented Electoral College

Democratic National Committee (DNC)

The main organizational body of the Democratic Party that coordinates strategy and fundraising

Republican National Committee (RNC)

The main organizational body of the Republican Party that coordinates strategy and fundraising

Platform

A formal statement of a party's positions and policies on major issues

Party Machine

A political organization that controls a city or region through patronage and rewards to supporters

Political Polarization

The division of political attitudes toward ideological extremes, with decreasing middle ground or compromise. This has increased dramatically over the past 20-30 years

Voter Registration

The process where citizens sign up to be eligible to vote, which can be done at various government offices or online in most states

The Franchise

The legal right to vote in elections. It has expanded over time:

15th Amendment (1870)

Prohibits denying voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment (1913)

Established direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote instead of state legislatures.

19th Amendment (1920)

Granted women the right to vote nationwide.

24th Amendment (1964)

Banned poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment (1971)

Set the national voting age at 18.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Includes protections to ensure equal access to public accommodations and federal programs. Laid the groundwork for the VRA.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA)

Prohibits racial discrimination in voting, ensuring equal access to the ballot for all citizens, particularly targeting practices that disenfranchise minority voters.

National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (Motor Voter Act)

Designed to make voter registration easier by requiring states to offer it when applying for or renewing a driver's license and through other public agencies.

Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA)

Passed to improve election procedures and voter access – established standards for voting systems and providing funding to states for election infrastructure upgrades.

Same-Day Voter Registration

In states that have this, it allows eligible voters to register and cast their ballot on the same day, either during early voting or on Election Day

Extended Early Voting

In states that have this, it puts in place an election policy that increases the number of days or hours before Election Day when voters can cast their ballots in person

Mail-In Voting

In states that have this, voters can request and submit their ballots by mail instead of voting in person, often used to increase accessibility

Third-Party Ballot Dropoff

In states that have this, voters can have someone else, such as a friend, family member, or organization, deliver their completed ballots to an election office or drop box

Voter ID Requirement

In states that have this, voters need to present specific forms of identification, such as a driver’s license or government-issued ID, before casting their ballot

Voter Citizenship Requirements

Laws mandating that individuals provide proof of U.S. citizenship to register or vote, ensuring that only citizens participate in elections

Voting Rights for Felons

Policies that determine if and when individuals convicted of felonies regain their voting rights, which vary widely by state, from automatic restoration to permanent disenfranchisement.

Voting Models

Ways people decide for whom they are voting, including:

Rational-Choice Voting

Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen’s individual interest.

Prospective Issue Voting

Voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future.

Retrospective Issue Voting

Voting to decide whether the party/candidate in power should be re-elected based on the recent past. 

Candidate/Issue-Specific Voting

A quality of a candidate or an issue important to a voter can influence who they vote for.

Event-Specific Voting

A particular event or situation important to a voter can influence who they vote for.

Party-Line Voting

Voting for one political party for all public offices across the ballot. 

Name Recognition

A baseline measure for a candidate to see how many people know who they are

Winner-Take-All System

The winning side gets full control, with no proportional allocation to runners-up. Ex: The U.S. presidential candidate winning 51% of a state's popular vote receives 100% of its electoral votes (in most states)

Proportional Representation

Election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote

Single-Member District

An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official

First-Past-the-Post Voting System

The candidate who gets the highest number of votes wins the election outright, even without achieving a majority

Ranked Choice Voting System

Voters rank candidates in order of preference. If no candidate gets a majority of first-choice votes, the lowest-scoring candidate is eliminated and their votes are redistributed to voters' next choices until someone wins more than 50%

Primary

An election where registered voters cast ballots to choose their party's nominee for the general election

Caucus

A meeting of local party members who gather to discuss candidates and publicly vote for their preferred general election nominee through an interactive process

General Election

The final election where voters choose between candidates from different parties (typically the winners of the primaries/caucuses) to determine who will hold public office

National Party Convention

A national meeting of delegates elected at primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.

Presidential Election

Elections held in years when the president is on the ballot. 

Midterm Election

Elections held midway between presidential elections. 

Off-Year Elections

Elections held in odd numbered calendar years. 

Recall Election

A special election where voters can remove an official from office before their term ends.

Electoral College

Electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for particular party’s candidates.

Ticket-Spending

When voters choose candidates from different parties for different offices on the same ballot.

Safe Seat

Elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of the party’s candidate is almost taken for granted. 

Incumbent Advantage

Sitting officeholders benefit when running for reelection, including with name recognition and existing support networks.

Coattail Effect

The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president. 

Citizen Initiative

A process allowing voters to put proposed laws directly on the ballot by gathering signatures.

Referendum

A vote where citizens can accept or reject a law passed by the legislature.

Demographic

A group with statistical characteristics of human populations, such as age, race, or income.

Polling Organization/Pollster

A group, usually a business, news service, or university, that conducts professional, scientific polls using best practices. Examples of highly rated pollsters include Monmouth University, Gallup, New York Times/Sienna, and Ipsos. Some polling organizations work primarily with one party or another.

Public Opinion Poll

Taken by sampling a small section of the public in an effort to predict election results or to estimate public attitudes on issues. There are different ways to to do this:

Random Sampling

A method of selecting participants for a poll where each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Random Digit Dialing

Telephone polling method with a set area code but which is otherwise randomized.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling method that ensures representation of specific subgroups within a population.

Benchmark Poll

Conducted by a campaign as a race begins - Provides the campaign with a basis for comparison for later polls so as to see if the likelihood of winning the office is increasing or decreasing.

Tracking Poll

A survey that measures changes in public opinion over time.

Entrance/Exit Poll

Surveys of voters conducted either as they enter or leave polling places.

Straw Poll

An unofficial or informal poll taken to gauge opinion, often unscientific.

Margin of Error

The range within which the true population value is likely to fall, based on survey results.

Mass Survey

A poll of a large number of people to gather information about their opinions.

Push Poll

A form of negative campaigning disguised as a poll, designed to influence rather than measure opinion.

Focus Group

A small group selected to participate in guided discussions about political issues or candidates.

Sampling Error

The difference between survey results and true population values due to using a sample rather than surveying everyone. Creates a margin of error.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than their true opinions.

Bandwagon Effect

The tendency of survey respondents to support a candidate (or say they support a candidate) because they believe that candidate will win.

Turnout

Polls do not always account for who will actually make the effort to vote, who is motivated to cast a ballot that reflects the beliefs of the respondents.

Efficacy

Citizens' faith and trust in government and their belief that they can understand and influence political affairs.

Government Intervention

Actions taken by government to influence economic or social outcomes. Liberals emphasize this.

Regulation

Government rules and policies designed to control or influence conduct in the economy or society.

Public Society

The actions and decisions made by government to address public issues.

Domestic Policy

Government actions and programs dealing with issues within the country.

Social Policy

Domestic government programs and actions dealing with social issues and public welfare.

Foreign Policy

Government actions and policies regarding relations with other countries. Conservatives tend to favor unilateral (self-directed and independent) action by the United States while Liberals tend to favor multilateral action (working with other countries to solve problems).

Fiscal Policy

Government policy regarding taxation and spending.

Monetary Policy

Policy regarding the money supply and interest rates, typically controlled by the Federal Reserve.

Keynesian Economics

Developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes during the 1930s in an attempt to understand the Great Depression. Keynes advocated increased government expenditures and lower taxes to stimulate demand and pull the global economy out of the depression. Generally favored by Democrats.

Laissez-Faire Economics

Involves minimal government interference in the market economy, based on the belief that the market will naturally regulate itself through free competition, supply and demand, with little to no government regulation, tariffs, or subsidies. Generally favored by Republicans. Also referred to as Free Market Economics or Free Enterprise Economics. 

Supply-Side Economics (Trickle-Down Economics)

Favors lowering taxes on corporations, which will stimulate investment in industry and raise production, which will, in turn, bring down prices and control inflation. Supply-siders focus on increasing the supply of goods rather than stimulating demand by granting subsidies to the public. Supply-side economics influenced the presidency of Ronald Reagan. 

Blue Collar

Type of job involving manual labor, hand-ons work; usually paid by the hour; usually requires technical or vocational training and/or apprenticeships. Ex: mechanics, welders, machine operators, plumbers.

White Collar

Type of job involving mental or clerical work, often in an office environment; usually salaried; usually requires a formal education/college degree. Ex: insurance agents, lawyers, accountants, financial analysts.

Pink Collar

Care-oriented or service-related jobs traditionally dominated by women, such as nurses, teachers, childcare workers, or secretaries.

Linkage Institution

Organizations like parties, media, and interest groups that connect citizens to government.

Interest Group

An organized collection of people who share a common goal and try to influence government policy.

Think Tank

A research organization that analyzes policy issues and makes recommendations.

Iron Triangle

The strong relationship between congressional committees, federal bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that often controls policy-making in specific areas. Each group benefits: congressional committees provide funding and oversight to agencies; agencies provide expertise and implement policies; and interest groups provide political support and information to both Congress and agencies. The term "iron" triangle emphasizes how difficult it is for outsiders to break into or influence these established relationships, which can sometimes prioritize the interests of these three groups over the broader public interest.

Issue Network

A loose coalition of people and groups who share interest in a policy area and work to influence it.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court case that dramatically changed campaign finance rules. The Court ruled that under the First Amendment's free speech protections, the government cannot restrict independent political spending by corporations, labor unions, and other organizations. This decision effectively allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts on elections, as long as they don't coordinate directly with candidates or their campaigns. The ruling led to the creation of Super PACs, which can raise and spend unlimited funds from corporations, unions, and individuals to influence elections, but they must disclose their donors and cannot coordinate with campaigns.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

An organization that collects campaign contributions and donates them to political candidates.

Super PAC

An independent political committee that can raise unlimited funds but cannot coordinate directly with candidates.

527 Committee

An organization whose mission is primarily political, but not in favor or against a particular candidate. A 527 can raise unlimited funds for political activities but must disclose donors. Ex: A pro-Israel organization might work to benefit Israel. It might donate in any particular election to help a pro-Israel candidate or cause, but that donation is part of its larger political mission.

501c Group

An organization whose mission is not primarily political, but it can engage in limited political activity without disclosing donors. Ex: A science research institute might work primarily to reduce carbon emissions and only get involved in political activity when there is a policy or law involving carbon emissions.

Public Funding

Government money provided to qualifying presidential candidates who agree to spending limits.

Matching Funds

Public funds given to qualifying presidential candidates that match small private donations.

Stand by Your Ad

The requirement that candidates must appear in and approve their campaign advertisements.

Mass Media

Television, newspapers, magazines, and social media organizations that communicate to large audiences.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalized news coverage that emphasizes scandal and drama over facts. Leads to Infotainment.