Jews/Christians Midterm #1

Who were Peter and Paul, and what is the “two-track system”?

Peter was one of Jesus’s original apostles and a leader of the Jewish-Christian community in Jerusalem, advocating for the observance of Jewish law by all followers of Christ. Paul (originally Saul of Tarsus) was a Pharisee who converted to Christianity and became a prominent missionary to Gentiles, teaching that salvation comes through faith in Christ alone, not through adherence to the Mosaic Law. The “two-track system” refers to the emergent dual paths within early Christianity: one maintained a strong connection to Jewish tradition (represented by figures like Peter and James), while the other, championed by Paul, focused on converting Gentiles without requiring them to fully adopt Jewish practices.

What was the Incident at Antioch?

The Incident at Antioch, described in Paul’s letter to the Galatians (Galatians 2), was a significant confrontation between Peter and Paul. Paul publicly accused Peter of hypocrisy for initially sharing meals with Gentile converts but then withdrawing from them under pressure from more conservative Jewish Christians. This event highlighted the intense early tensions over the role of Jewish Law, particularly concerning dietary regulations and social interaction, in the burgeoning Christian community and the inclusion of Gentiles.

What is the “Parting of the Ways”?

The “Parting of the Ways” refers to the gradual historical process, occurring primarily during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, where Judaism and Christianity diverged to become distinct and separate religions. This separation was driven by growing theological and practical differences, including contrasting views on the identity and role of Jesus, the interpretation and observance of the Mosaic Law, and the implications of the destruction of the Temple for worship and religious authority, ultimately leading each tradition to define itself independently.

What happened during the Destruction of the Temple in 70 CE?

In 70 CE, Roman forces brutally destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem during the First Jewish-Roman War. This catastrophic event effectively ended temple-based worship, sacrifices, and the central authority of the Sadducean priesthood. Its aftermath fundamentally reshaped both Judaism and early Christianity: it spurred the rise of rabbinic Judaism, which centered on Torah study and synagogue worship, and propelled church-based Christianity, leading to greater theological distinctions from its Jewish roots.

Q: What is the Rabbinic Period, and who were the rabbis?

The Rabbinic Period began after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. During this time, rabbis (meaning 'my teacher' or 'my master') emerged as the primary religious and legal authorities within Judaism, replacing the priestly class. They emphasized intensive study and interpretation of the Torah (written and oral law), prayer, and communal life as the cornerstones of Jewish identity, rather than temple sacrifices. Their work laid the foundational framework for modern Judaism, often referred to as rabbinic Judaism.

What is Adversus Judaeos literature?

Adversus Judaeos ('Against the Jews') literature comprises early Christian writings that critically engaged with, argued against, or denounced Jewish beliefs, practices, and their continued relevance. These texts, written from the 2nd century CE onward, reflected and intensified the growing theological and social hostility between Christians and Jews. They often sought to assert Christian claims of superiority, criticize Jewish non-acceptance of Jesus, and distinguish Christian identity from Jewish traditions.

Who was Chrysostom?

John Chrysostom (c. 347–407 CE) was a highly influential Church Father and Archbishop of Constantinople, renowned for his eloquent preaching, which earned him the epithet 'Chrysostom,' meaning 'golden-mouthed.' He is particularly known for delivering a series of fierce 'Adversus Judaeos' homilies (sermons) in Antioch. In these sermons, he vehemently condemned Jews and Jewish customs, harshly criticizing Christians who continued to observe Jewish festivals or frequent synagogues, and contributing significantly to the anti-Jewish polemic within early Christianity.

Who was Justin Martyr?

Justin Martyr (c. 100–165 CE) was a significant 2nd-century Christian apologist and philosopher. He is famous for his work Dialogue with Trypho, in which he engages in a fictional debate with a Jewish scholar named Trypho. In this dialogue, Justin argues that Christians are the 'true Israel' and the rightful inheritors of God's covenant, interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures as prophecies fulfilled by Jesus. This treatise is a prime example of early Christian supersessionism, asserting that the church had replaced Israel as God's chosen people.

What is the Martyrdom of Polycarp?

The Martyrdom of Polycarp is a 2nd-century CE letter detailing the arrest, trial, and execution of Polycarp, the elderly bishop of Smyrna, who was martyred by being burned alive and then stabbed. This influential text presents Polycarp’s steadfast endurance in suffering as an imitation of Christ's passion and resurrection. It served as an inspirational model for subsequent Christian martyrs, emphasizing unwavering faith in the face of persecution and contributing to the development of a distinct Christian identity forged through suffering.

What do the Gospels say about the crucifixion?

All four canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) narrate the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. While they share the core event and the theological understanding that Jesus's death was a redemptive sacrifice for the sins of humanity, they include varying details about the events leading up to, during, and immediately after the crucifixion, such as specific dialogue, interactions with his family, and accompanying phenomena. Despite these differences, they collectively emphasize the profound theological significance of his suffering and resurrection as central to Christian belief.

How do the Old and New Testaments relate to the Hebrew Bible and Torah?

The 'Old Testament' is the Christian term for the first part of the Christian Bible, which largely corresponds to the 'Hebrew Bible' (Tanakh), the sacred scripture of Judaism. Both collections contain many of the same texts, but they differ significantly in their arrangement, canonical scope, and, most importantly, their theological interpretation. Christians view the Old Testament primarily as a foreshadowing of Jesus Christ, seeing his life and ministry as the fulfillment of prophecies and covenants. Jews, on the other hand, regard the Torah (the first five books), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings) as God's ongoing revelation and covenant with Israel, guiding their practices and understanding of God's relationship with humanity, without recognizing Jesus as a messianic figure or the New Covenant as superseding the old.

What was the Council of Nicaea, and who were Arius and Constantine?

The Council of Nicaea, convened in 325 CE by the Roman Emperor Constantine, was the first ecumenical council of the Christian Church. Its primary purpose was to address the theological controversy known as Arianism, championed by Arius, a presbyter from Alexandria. Arius taught that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was a created being, subordinate to God the Father, and not co-eternal or co-equal with Him. Constantine, seeking unity within his empire, called the council, which ultimately condemned Arius's teachings as heresy and affirmed the full divinity of Jesus Christ (that he is 'of one substance with the Father') in the Nicene Creed, a foundational statement of Christian doctrine.

What was Yavneh?

Yavneh (or Jamnia) was a town in Judea that became a crucial center for Jewish learning and religious authority after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Under the leadership of Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, Jewish scholars and sages gathered there to rebuild Jewish life and worship in the absence of the Temple. Yavneh played a pivotal role in redefining Judaism, shifting its focus from sacrificial rituals to prayer, Torah study, and the strict observance of halakha (Jewish law), thereby laying essential foundations for rabbinic Judaism.

Who was Paul?

Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was an influential early Christian missionary, theologian, and prolific writer. A Hellenistic Jew and former Pharisee, he experienced a dramatic conversion and became known as the 'Apostle to the Gentiles.' Paul traveled extensively, spreading the Christian message throughout the Roman Empire and establishing numerous churches. His letters, which form a significant portion of the New Testament, articulate key doctrines such as salvation through faith in Christ, the abrogation of the Mosaic Law for Gentile converts, and the universal scope of God's grace. His theology profoundly shaped the development of Christian thought and practice.

What are the two creation stories in Genesis?

The Book of Genesis contains two distinct accounts of creation. Genesis 1 (often called the Priestly account) presents a cosmic, orderly, seven-day creation account, where God, through His word, systematically brings forth the heavens, earth, plants, animals, and humanity (male and female simultaneously) in a grand, universal scope. Genesis 2 (often called the Yahwist account) offers a more intimate, anthropomorphic narrative focusing on the creation of Adam from dust, placing him in the Garden of Eden, and then creating Eve from his rib. These two stories, while differing in style, sequence, and theological emphasis, together provide a foundational understanding of God's creative power and humanity's relationship with the divine and the natural world.

What is a covenant?

A covenant in a religious context is a sacred and binding agreement or solemn pact, typically established between God and His people, or between individuals with God as a witness. In the Hebrew Bible, significant covenants include those with Noah (a promise never again to destroy life by flood), Abraham (promising land, descendants, and blessing), and Moses (the Law given at Sinai, establishing Israel as God's chosen people). In Christianity, Jesus's death and resurrection are understood to establish a 'new covenant' through his blood, which is believed to supersede and fulfill the previous covenants, offering forgiveness of sins and eternal life to all who have faith in Him.

What is a Judaizer?

A Judaizer was a term used by Paul to describe certain early Christians who insisted that Gentile converts to Christianity must adhere to Jewish law, particularly circumcision, in order to be considered true followers of Christ. Paul vehemently opposed the Judaizers, arguing that salvation is attained solely through faith in Jesus Christ, not through the observance of the Mosaic Law. This theological disagreement was a major point of contention in the early church, as seen in the Incident at Antioch and the Council of Jerusalem, shaping the trajectory of Christianity's relationship with Judaism.

Who was Augustine?

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) was one of the most influential Church Fathers and theologians in Western Christianity. His teachings profoundly shaped subsequent Christian doctrine, particularly on concepts such as original sin, divine grace, predestination, and the nature of the Church. Regarding Jews, Augustine developed a complex theological position: he argued that while Jews were spiritually blinded to the truth of Christ, they should be preserved (though in a subordinate and humble status) within Christian society as living 'witnesses' to the truth of the Hebrew Scriptures, which Christians believed prophesied Jesus. This doctrine, while preventing extermination, still justified their marginalization.

Who was Constantine, and what happened in 312 CE?

Constantine I (c. 272–337 CE) was a Roman Emperor who played a pivotal role in the history of Christianity. In 312 CE, before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he reportedly had a vision of a Christian symbol (the Chi-Rho) and heard a divine message. Interpreting a subsequent victory as a sign of the Christian God's favor, he converted to Christianity (or at least became a patron of it). This event had profound implications: in 313 CE, he issued the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, ending centuries of persecution and paving the way for its eventual establishment as the state religion.

Who were the Church Fathers?

The Church Fathers were influential theologians, writers, and leaders in early Christianity, whose significant contributions between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE helped define and solidify Christian doctrine, liturgy, and ecclesiastical structures. They interpreted scripture, defended Christian beliefs against heresies, formulated creeds, and established theological frameworks that continue to impact Christian thought. Prominent figures include Augustine of Hippo, Jerome (who translated the Bible into Latin), Athanasius of Alexandria (a key defender of Nicene Christianity), and John Chrysostom.

What is supersessionism?

Supersessionism, also known as replacement theology, is a theological doctrine asserting that the Christian Church has replaced or superseded Israel (the Jewish people) as God’s chosen people, and that the new covenant established through Jesus Christ has rendered obsolete or fulfilled the old covenant made with Israel. This belief suggests that the promises God made to Israel in the Hebrew Bible are now inherited by the Church, and that Judaism, as a religious system, no longer holds a distinct salvific role in God's plan. It has been a significant and often contentious aspect of Christian-Jewish relations throughout history.

What is sectarianism?

Sectarianism refers to the division within a larger religious tradition into distinct, often mutually exclusive, groups or sects, usually characterized by strong adherence to their specific doctrines, practices, or leadership. These divisions often arise from differing interpretations of core beliefs, ritual practices, or social policies. Examples include the various Jewish sects during the Second Temple period (e.g., Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes), and the numerous factions that emerged within early Christianity, each asserting its particular understanding of Jesus and his teachings, often leading to internal conflicts and diverse community formations.

What is Paul’s tree metaphor?

In Romans 11, Paul uses the metaphor of an olive tree to illustrate the complex relationship between Jewish and Gentile believers within God's salvation plan. He describes Israel as the roots and some natural branches of the olive tree, which were broken off due to unbelief. Gentile believers are depicted as wild olive branches grafted into this cultivated tree, sharing in its rich root. Paul uses this metaphor to warn Gentile Christians against arrogance, emphasizing that they do not support the root, but the root supports them. It underscores the continued importance of Israel in God's plan and the essential unity of all believers, both Jewish and Gentile, rooted in God's covenant promises.

What is the Talmud?

The Talmud is the foundational central text of rabbinic Judaism, serving as a comprehensive written compilation of Jewish oral law, rabbinic discussions, stories, ethics, and history. It is composed of two main parts: the Mishnah (an early 3rd-century CE compilation of oral Jewish laws) and the Gemara (extensive rabbinic commentary and analysis of the Mishnah). There are two main versions: the Babylonian Talmud (larger and more authoritative) and the Jerusalem (Palestinian) Talmud. The Talmud is an indispensable source for Jewish law, ethics, and theology, guiding Jewish life and thought for nearly two millennia.

What is the Mishnah?

The Mishnah is the first major written compilation of the Jewish oral traditions and laws, redacted in the early 3rd century CE, primarily by Judah ha-Nasi. It is meticulously organized into six orders (volumes), each containing treatises on various aspects of Jewish life, including agricultural laws, festivals, women's marital rights, civil and criminal law, sacrificial rites, and ritual purity. Serving as the foundational text for the Gemara, the Mishnah is the bedrock upon which the entire Talmud is built and represents the initial codification of rabbinic Judaism's legal and ethical framework after the destruction of the Second Temple.

Who was Bar Kochba?

Bar Kochba (Simon ben Kosiba) was the charismatic leader of the last major Jewish revolt against Roman rule in Judea, which took place from 132–135 CE. Initially successful, he established an independent Jewish state for a brief period and was even hailed by some prominent rabbis, including Rabbi Akiva, as the Messiah. His revolt ultimately failed with devastating consequences: Rome crushed the rebellion, inflicted immense casualties on the Jewish population, and further dispersed Jews from Judea. The defeat of Bar Kochba's revolt solidified the shift from a more politically oriented messianism to spiritual and rabbinic leadership within Judaism.

Who was Marcion?

Marcion (c. 85–160 CE) was a prominent 2nd-century Christian theologian from Sinope (modern-day Turkey) who founded his own influential movement. His radical theology asserted a fundamental dichotomy between the vengeful, justice-oriented God of the Old Testament (the creator god, Demiurge) and the benevolent, loving God revealed by Jesus in the New Testament. Marcion rejected the entire Old Testament and drastically curtailed the New Testament canon to exclusively include edited versions of Luke’s Gospel and ten of Paul’s letters, eliminating any passages that connected Jesus to Judaism. He was declared a major heretic by the developing orthodox Church, and his challenge significantly spurred Christian leaders to define and establish a universally accepted biblical canon.