Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics

It is the study of how language interacts with society, examining how social factors (e.g., culture, class, gender, ethnicity) influence language use, variation, and change

Strands of sociolinguistics

Bell divides it into three main strands:

1. Sociolinguistics of Multilingualism (it consists of Sociology of language and Critical-Constructivist framework) 

2. Ethnographic-Interactional Sociolinguistics 

3. Variationist Sociolinguistics 

Sociology of language

1. Founded by Fishman

2. Arose in 1950-60s 

3. Also called macro-sociolinguistics 

4. It concerns itself with whole languages and their distribution and usage within society; its focus is on the use of English by particular groups: for example, language and power.

Critical-Constructivist

1. Works by Heller

2. It sees the language as a social practice 

3. Concerns globalisation 

4. Language constructs society, and also it is important how it is constructed into the society

5. It overtook the Sociology of Language in multilingual research

ethnographic-Interactional

1. Founded by Gumperz and Hymes 

2. Ethnography concentrates on how ­ individuals and small groups behave and interact

3. It has a strongly anthropological character, combined with the skills of linguistic analysis 

4. It shows how cultural background influences communication

Variationist

• Founded by Labov

• Dominant paradigm in the USA 

• It focuses on researching how particular linguistic features vary with different social factors such as age or gender

• Works at the micro level of analysis 

• Mostly done on phonology 

NORM

1. An acronym for Non-mobile, Older, Rural Males, referring to the ideal speakers targeted by traditional dialectologists for studying "pure" regional dialects uncontaminated by standard language influences

2. Traditional dialectologists believed NORMs represented the most conservative and authentic forms of regional dialects, useful for tracking historical sound changes

Isogloss

1. A boundary line on a dialect map marking the geographic distribution of a specific linguistic feature (e.g., pronunciation, vocabulary)

2. Isoglosses help visualize dialectal variation but can be misleading, as linguistic features rarely have sharp boundaries in reality

Linguistic Variable

1. A set of related linguistic forms (variants) that convey the same meaning but differ socially or stylistically

2. It reveals “orderly heterogeneity"—structured variation tied to identity, audience, or speech style

Accommodation and Audience Design

1. Adjusting speech to align with perceived audience norms

2. It is a part of style-shifting, showing how speakers adapt linguistically to social dynamics

Three waves of Sociolinguistics

1. First Wave (1960-70)

• Focus: Urban surveys, random sampling, correlation of variation with social class (e.g., Labov’s New York study)

• Goal: Track language change and social stratification

2. Second Wave (1980-90)

• Focus: Ethnographic, community-based studies (e.g., Milroys’ Belfast work)

• Goal: Explore social networks and local identity construction

3. Third Wave (2000-present)

• Focus: Identity performance, stylistic variation as social practice (e.g., Eckert’s "communities of practice").

• Goal: Understand how variants index layered social meanings

Identity and Linguistic Practice

1. The use of language to construct and express social identity

2. It’s tide to class, gender, and social groups

3. Language variation reflects and reinforces social boundaries

Regional variation

These are differences tied to geography

Social variation

Differences tied to class, ethnicity, or context (for example, H-dropping)

Language-Dialect Continuum

1. Gradual transitions between dialects/languages over geographic space

2. Mutual intelligibility: Neighbouring varieties are understandable, but endpoints may not be

3. Political influence: National boundaries can harden continuum into distinct "languages" (e.g., Serbian vs. Croatian)

Dialect

It is a subordinate variety of a language distinguished by its unique pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary, typically associated with a specific region, social group, or cultural identity

Accent

1. distinctive pronunciation patterns of a language or dialect, shaped by regional, social, or cultural influences

2. It is solely about sound variation

RP (Recieved Pronunciation)

1. prestige British accent associated with education and elite status

2. Non-regional: Lacks geographic markers

3. It’s dominance declines to Estuary English

Estuary English

1. A hybrid accent blending RP and Cockney features (e.g., glottal stops for /t/)

2. It is linked to London’s economic shift toward finance

General American

1. It is a neutral U.S. accent

2. It has no regional stigma

Style and Register

1. Style - Variation based on formality

2. Register - Occupation-specific language