Mizzou General Psych 1000 Final

psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What is a neuron?

A specialized cell in the nervous system.

What is the primary function of a neuron?

To receive, process, and transmit information.

How do neurons transmit information?

Through electrical and chemical signals.

Dendrites

branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive information from other neurons and carry it toward the cell body.

cell body/soma

contains the nucleus and processes incoming information from the dendrites

axon

carries the electrical signal away from the cell body

Super ego

(angel)It acts like the “angel” on your shoulder.It exists in the conscious, preconscious, and mostly the unconscious.

Its job is to make you do the morally right thing, even if it’s not fun or realistic.It is also known as the moral conscience.

Ego

The ego operates on the reality principle. Its job is to balance the demands of the id (pleasure) and the superego (morality). It deals with real-world consequences and makes practical decisions. It gives you your sense of self — the "you" that thinks, decides, and acts. The ego exists in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

ID(devil)  - pleasure principle, just wants to feel good, not carrying about consequences

pleasure principle, just wants to feel good, not carrying about consequences

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

CNS (central nervous system)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

amygdala

fear, emotion, detecting threats, and emotional memories

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus helps regulate hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep, hormones, and the body's stress response. Controls pituitary gland

Hippocampus

helps form new memories, store long-term memories, support learning, and organize spatial navigation (like mental maps of places).

Sensation is the process of detecting physical energy (like light, sound, or touch) through the sensory organs.

is the process of detecting physical energy (like light, sound, or touch) through the sensory organs.

Perception

is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so the brain can understand it.

Absolute threshold

is the smallest amount of stimulation a person can detect 50% of the time.

Nature vs. nurture

Nature vs. nurture is the debate over whether behavior is shaped more by genetics (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture).

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

Learn through senses and actions ,Object permanence develops ("things still exist even if you can't see them")

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Use language and imagination, Egocentric thinking, Lack conservation (don't understand that quantity stays the same even if appearance changes)

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

ogical thinking about concrete objects,Understand conservation, Less egocentric

Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

Abstract thinking, Hypothetical reasoning, Problem-solving improves

Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year)

Babies learn to trust caregivers to meet their needs.

autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)

Toddlers learn independence (saying "no," doing things themselves).

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)

Children begin taking initiative and planning activities.

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

Kids learn skills and feel competent; success leads to confidence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)

Teens develop a sense of self and personal identity.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (18–40 years)

Young adults form close, meaningful relationships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years)

Adults contribute to society, work, and family; focus on giving back and helping the next generation.

Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years)

Older adults reflect on their life; feel satisfaction (integrity) or regret (despair).

Personality

is a person’s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that stays consistent over time.

Defense mechanisms

are unconscious strategies the mind uses to reduce anxiety and protect the ego.

Trait theory

says that personality is made up of stable, lasting traits that describe how people consistently think, feel, and behave.

The bystander effect

is when people are less likely to help in an emergency if others are present.

Attribution theory

explains how people interpret the causes of behavior—either internal (personality) or external (situation).

The fundamental attribution

error is the tendency to overestimate personal traits (internal causes) and underestimate situational factors (external causes) when explaining other people’s behavior.

DSM-5

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

Schizophrenia

is a severe mental disorder characterized by distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, language, sense of self, and behavior.

Key features include:

Hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren’t there)

Delusions (false beliefs)

Disorganized thinking or speech

Social withdrawal

Impaired functioning

Bipolar I Disorder

Involves at least one manic episode (extremely elevated mood, energy, or irritability)

May also include depressive episodes

Mania is severe and can cause major life disruption

Bipolar II Disorder

Involves at least one hypomanic episode (less severe than mania)

Includes major depressive episodes

Hypomania does not cause severe life disruption like full mania

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

is a type of psychotherapy that helps people change negative thought patterns and behaviors to improve emotions and functioning.

Big Five Personality Traits

OCEAN

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Schema

A schema is a mental framework or organized pattern of thought that helps people interpret and understand information.

Major depressive disorder (MDD)

is a mental disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, and other symptoms that interfere with daily life for at least two weeks.

Common symptoms include:

Fatigue or low energy

Changes in sleep or appetite

Difficulty concentrating

Feelings of worthlessness or guilt

Thoughts of death or suicide

Comorbidity

is the presence of two or more disorders or illnesses occurring in the same person at the same time.

Eclectic

refers to an approach where a therapist uses techniques from multiple types of therapy rather than sticking to just one.

The therapist selects methods that best fit the client’s needs.

Combines approaches like cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, etc.

Dissociative disorders

are mental disorders in which a person experiences disruptions or gaps in memory, identity, consciousness, or perception.

Dissociative amnesia

- inability to recall important personal information

Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

presence of two or more distinct identities

Dispositional factors

are internal characteristics, like personality traits or attitudes, that influence behavior.

Situational factors

are external circumstances or environmental influences that affect behavior.

Sterotypes

generalized beliefs about a group of people.

Catharsis

the release of strong or repressed emotions, bringing relief.

Libido

the instinctual energy or sexual drive in Freud's theory

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

1. Oral Stage (0-18 months)

Pleasure from the mouth (sucking, chewing)

2. Anal Stage (18 months-3 years)

Pleasure from bowel/bladder control

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

Focus on genitals

Oedipus( B)/Electra (G) complex

4. Latency Stage (6-puberty)

Sexual impulses go dormant

Focus on school, friendships

5. Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood)

Mature sexual interests

Healthy relationships

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Alarm - The body enters "fight or flight"; adrenaline and stress hormones rise.

Resistance - The body tries to cope with the stressor and stay alert.

Exhaustion - The body's resources get depleted, leading to fatigue or health problems.

cognitive appraisal

is the mental process by which we interpret and evaluate a situation to determine how we feel about it and how we should respond.

Secondary appraisal

is the second step in cognitive appraisal, where you evaluate your ability to cope with the situation

Primary appraisal

is the first step in cognitive appraisal where you evaluate what a situation means to you.

Irrelevant (doesn’t matter to you)

Benign/positive (good or harmless)

Stressful (a threat, challenge, or potential harm)

Coping

refers to the thoughts and behaviors people use to manage stress, emotions, or challenging situations.

Emotion-focused coping

coping that aims to manage your emotional response to a stressful situation instead of changing the situation itself.

Examples:

Venting or crying

Talking to a friend about how you feel

Watching TV, listening to music, relaxing

Deep breathing or meditation

Reframing your thoughts (“It’s not the end of the world.”)

Problem-focused coping

is when you try to fix the problem causing the stress.

Examples:

Making a plan

Studying more for an exam

Asking for help or resources

Time management

Creating solutions or taking action

Breaking a big problem into smaller steps

Nevous system is responsible for what?

Behavior

The Central Nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

Somatic, Autonomic: Sympathetic, Parasympathetic. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Leptin

Leptin is a hormone that reduces hunger.

Released by fat cells

Signals the hypothalamus to decrease appetite

Helps regulate body weight

More body fat = more leptin = less hunger (in a healthy system).

Motivation

is the drive or desire that directs your behavior toward a goal.

Eustress

positive stress

Distress

negative stress

Drive

an internal push to satisfy a biological need.

drive-reduction theory

says that we are motivated to behave in ways that reduce physical needs and restore balance in the body.

Masslow's hierarchy of needs

Self-Actualization (top level)

Creative, fulfilling potential

Making a difference in the world

Achieving personal aspirations

Esteem Needs

Confidence, achievement

Feeling respected and valued by others

Love and Belongingness

Relationships, friendships

Feeling loved, connected, accepted

Family, romantic partners, social groups

Safety Needs

Feeling secure and protected

Physical safety, financial stability

“Survive the day” — no danger or fear

Physiological Needs (bottom level)

Food, water, sleep, air

Basic biological needs required to live

Internal locus of control

Believe outcomes are due to their own efforts and actions

Example: “I passed the test because I studied hard.”

External locus of control

Believe outcomes are due to luck, fate, or other outside forces

Example: “I failed the test because the questions were unfair.”

Classical Conditioning

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, causing a similar response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Dog Example: Food → naturally makes the dog salivate

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The natural, automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.Dog Example: Salivation in response to food

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not trigger the target response.

Dog Example: Bell → initially does nothing

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the US, triggers a response.

Dog Example: Bell → after pairing with food, it causes salivation

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Dog Example: Salivation in response to the bell

opperant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences—behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are punished are less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

increases behavior

Positive reinforcement

add something pleasant (e.g., give a treat for good behavior)

Negative reinforcement

remove something unpleasant (e.g., take away chores for good grades)

Punishment

decrease likelihood of a behavior

Positive punishment

add something unpleasant (e.g., scolding)

Negative punishment

remove something pleasant (e.g., take away phone privileges)

Habituation

You stop reacting as strongly to something you experience over and over.

Sensitization

You react more strongly to something the more you experience it.

Glutamate

neurotransmitter responsible for long term memory in the hippocampus

The Mere Exposure Effect

The more you are exposed to something, the more you tend to like it.

Elaborative rehearsal

You remember information better by relating it to things you already know.

Blocking

is a memory failure in which you cannot retrieve information that you know is stored in your memory

Interference

Other memories compete and make it harder to recall what you want.