Greek Art & Archaeology Terms

typology

arranging artifacts in chronological/developmental sequence

processual archaeology

focusing on the process and explanation of presenting finds instead of just dating artifacts

new archaeology

big explanations of processual archaeology and showing your work instead of generalizing it

postprocessual archaeology

understanding that there are multiple interpretations for remains and that biases can appear in research and hypotheses, emphasizing the uniqueness of cultures and understanding societies based on their own merits

archaeological record

the data collected like artifacts, ecofacts, features, and structures

artifact

pots, statues, tools, weapons, hearth, storage

ecofact

organic material like bones, plants, soils

feature

non portable remains like hearth and architectural elements

structure

buildings

primary deposition

the original material left in place by human activity

secondary deposition

items that have been relocated or altered

matrix

the material around the object

survey archaeology

getting information about human interactions with the landscape through systematic sampling and collecting surface material from sites

open-area excavation

large, horizontal areas of sites are dug out to figure out the spatial relationship of the artifacts and the layout of features

law of superposition

what is found on top is more recent

stratigraphy

a branch of geology studying rocks and their layering

techne

art, skill, cunning of hand, handiwork, the set of rules for making art

Pheidias

465-425 BC, a Greek sculptor and painter who made the statue of zeus in Olympia and the statue of Athena in the parthenon

Sophilos

580-570BC, a Greek potter who created the Sophilos Dinos used to mix water and wine to serve to others, which is a vase with the earliest account of an artist’s signature on the vase

connoisseurship

the attribution of works of art to ancient artists and their workshops, pioneered by Sir John Beazley

Sir John Beazley

pioneered connoisseurship for Greek vases so they can be attributed to their rightful artists

morellian method

using minor details in pieces of art to attribute it to a certain artists who had a continuous unconscious habit of adding certain things to art

periodization

the way of defining Greek art as a product of typologies and splitting times into periods like Early Minoan, Middle Cycladic, Late Helladic, etc depending on time and location 

francthi cave

excavated by Jacobsen in the 1960s and 70s where bone tools, fish bones, and obsidian tools were found showing occupation in the Paleolithic era around 13,000 BC, lithics and debotage from the mesolithic in 8300-6000 BC, and neolithic when pottery was found, also where the oldest deliberate burial in Greece occurred of a man along with women and children elsewhere and cremation burials

prehistory

the time before we had written accounts of history or writings that we could read

petralona skull

a skull found in the petralona cave that was the earliest evidence of hominids in Greece, found in 1960, dates to 300,000-400,000 years ago, only the cranium was found with no other hominid bones, early Paleolithic 

mother goddess

the neolithic belief in a great goddess shown in female figurines that suggested a female shape but differed from place to place

knossos

Bronze Age Middle Minoan Cretan palace that came about with the increase in trade and development of writing, it was a center for collection (magazines), storage (kouloures), processing, distribution (pithoi), manufacturing, trade, religion, and political functions, it was ornate, spread out, had frescoes, lustral basins, pottery and bronze figurines found 

obsidian

a volcanic rock used to make tools in the neolithic era and can be found on Cycladic islands like Milos

synchronisms

when foreign objects we can date firmly appear in a stratigraphic context and we can sync up dates of a network of events and objects

terminus post quem

the earliest possible date

demic diffusion

the movement of actual people from place to place, could explain the movement of materials, farming emerging, and pottery/art styles being influenced

dimini

late neolithic living settlement from 3700-3300 BC excavated by Christos Tsountas in the 1900s, a megaron found in dimini suggests a centralized government or common gathering place, evidence of craft specialization, cooperation, and social complexity, placed importance on the house and families that were buried underneath the floor 

steatopygous

intentional emphasis on body fat in lower or more female parts of the body to portray that the figure is a woman, could be a symbol of fertility in figurines used in rituals, as toys, or as tools

polysemic

has many meanings depending on context

Sir Arthur Evans

1851-1941, The archaeologist who created the idea of the Minoans after king Minos of Crete by excavating Knossos, debated whether he recovered or invented the Minoans and it is discussed how his views changed our interpretation of the Minoans whom he thought to be the center 

Harriet Boyd-Hawes

1871-1945, The female archaeologist who excavated Gournia from 1901-1904 and spoke at the AIA

gournia

an area in Crete known for its house tombs excavated by boyd-hawes, these tombs had two rooms possibly to help with a transition to an afterlife, outside the tombs was a kernos

kernos

found outside the house tombs in Gournia, it is believed to be an offering stone used to worship ancestors buried in the house tombs without disturbing the tombs, shows development in burial practices from typical burials and cremations in the neolithic

tholos

found in kamilari Crete, these are round buildings with vaulted ceilings used as places to venerate dead ancestors who had power in the settlement, labor and work were put into burying the dead and it shows a differentiation in wealth, power, skillsets, and jobs

goddess of myrtos

a goddess figurine found in the settlement of Myrtos that is believed to be a religious figurine idol to the mother goddess of Myrtos that also functioned as a jug

mallia

a burial complex in Crete possibly used for multiple burials and later reused as a monumental palace, the gold bee pendant was found in a tomb there showing it was a resting place for wealthy people with power, later was a palace with kouloures storage pits

cycladic figurines

folded arm figurines found both in Cycladic settlements and in graves that were decorated with jewelry, hair, features, and tattoos, more possibly religious totems/idols found in graves that could show appreciation for the dead or their gods

phaistos

a palace from the old palatial period in Crete with monumental architecture, fortification walls, wall paintings, communal spaces, a throne room, and places for their redistribution economy

phaistos disk

a disk found in phaistos with Linear A writing on it, showing that they had a system of communication and were developed enough to write things down, even though we can’t understand it

kouloures

stone lined pits found in the three major palaces Knossos, mallia, and phaistos, that were close to a western courtyard and used for storage, rituals, planters, etc, and had roofs on top

fresco

wall paintings created by applying pigment to damp-plaster to create scenes that mainly focused on nature and humans

sacred grove fresco

a fresco found in Knossos depicting women painted in white possibly doing ritualistic dances with a crowd of men in red watching in the background, the ratio of men to women suggest women could be goddesses or important for the ritual as the men watch

pithos

storage jars found in magazines that suggest these palaces were used as storage and distribution centers 

magazines

large, narrow storerooms in palaces with pithoi found in them, suggesting they were used for storing goods in the palace for them to be distributed later

west court

a large, paved area with raised walkways found in Knossos but also similarly in other palaces, it suggests that there was a public meeting area that would be a place for the people to interact with each other and engage with the community

priest-king fresco

a fresco of the prince of the Lillies reconstructed by Evans from the second palatial period, suggests a possible rule by a priest-king, which would explain throne rooms found and explain the form of government that could have existed at the time

kamares ware

delicate pieces of pottery found in areas of Minoan Crete and in palaces with a distinct style to them of light on dark designs, normally for functional everyday palatial use

Cycladic frying pans

mysterious Cycladic frying-pan shaped objects found with designs on them like water, boats, fish, and maybe a female pubic area, it is unsure what these were used for though

grandstand fresco

a fresco found in Knossos with some in the middle and a tripartite shrine with a crowd of men surrounding them, could be a ritualistic scene associating the palace with power or religion

horns of consecration

a recurring symbol found in many pieces of art and pottery of bull horns, likely representing something sacred with their appearance in ritualistic scenes to show power and religious significance

tripartite shrine

the focal point of the grandstand fresco which has a three-part shrine used for rituals in the palace right on the courtyard area near the central staircase, seals, statuettes, plaques, and ceramic vessels were found here

lustral basins

secluded areas in Knossos and phaistos on a basement level with a staircase, likely used a shrines below the ground

double axe

symbolistic miniature gold or useful items found throughout Crete in cave shrines and peak sanctuaries in the early and middle Minoan periods used likely for rituals

arkalochori axe

a Minoan double headed bronze axe found in the arkalochori cave with inscriptions of Linear A on it showing that writing was used likely for rituals that occurred in caves but could also be from earlier habitation

pillar crypts

religious areas found in all three palaces and in other buildings likely to imitate a sacred cave used for rituals

bull leaping

a sport/activity depicted in the middle Minoan I and into the late Minoan periods where men would be seen leaping over bulls either for sport and entertainment or rituals, it was depicted in Knossos which showed development of society with entertainment

boxer’s rhyton

found in aria triada, its a drinking vessel made of stone and gold with depictions of boxing and bull leaping on it, likely it suggests that these things were done for sport and likely the winner received the rhyton

Minoan goddesses with upraised arms

terracotta figures found in Crete from the neopalatial period with upraised arms in a gesture of epiphany and usually are decorated with snakes, poppies, birds, or horns of consecration, likely religious symbols for fertility, sleep, death, etc as they were found in bench sanctuaries alongside cult sets or also a symbols of lineage for social competition

Heinrich Schliemann

1822-1890 excavated troy and then moved to Greece where he looked at Mycenae and the late Bronze Age mainland

shaft graves

late Bronze Age burial sites that were large rectangular grave sites located on the outside of settlements in grave circles with many things stored or buried inside all in one area

cist graves

subterranean burial chambers that are coffin-like and used to bury the dead or their cremated ashes during the Bronze Age

grave circle A

another grave circle that was later incorporated into the citadel and had grave markers in the circles, in this were gold masks found like the mask of Agamemnon and the siege rhyton depicting a battle, suggests differentiation of wealth among those living there and a more hostile society

grave circle B

found outside the citadel in Mycenae and housed the 35 burials of mostly men over several generations from 1675-1550 BC, along with the skeletons were weapons, pottery, jewelry, death masks, and imports

mask of agamemnon

a gold funerary mask found by Schliemann in grave circle A in Mycenae in 1876, believed to be the mask of king agamemnon but in general it represents the wealth of Mycenae and the time and money put into burial practices during that time, showed there was a wealthy elite class who could afford death masks

cyclopean masonry

late Helladic mycean citadel fortification walls used to protect the area from people trying to get in, shows that they had something to protect and had people they were protecting their goods from

lion gate at Mycenae

from the 13 century BC this relief marked the entrance into the citadel at Mycenae, the relief itself has lion/lioness figures suggesting a cretan/minoan origin and the depiction of a deity symbol with a column between lions, a grand entrance like this suggests people often came in and out of the citadel and exchanged ideas/art styles to have a relief like this

dromos

long hallway entrance and a circular subterranean burial chamber in the tools tombs of Mycenae where the ruling class and elites were buried in the late Helladic period

megaron

the biggest thing atop a hill where power was focused, tripartite structure central area with a porch, vestibule, and throne room with a large circular hearth, four columns, rich decorations, and frescos likely for the highest elite to sit in, the tripartite doors could be closed for privacy, showing a government with one in charge or a group of elites

palace of nestor

Mycenaean palace found in pylos by carl blegen in 1939

pylos archives

procession fresco of a ritual procession with people carrying offerings and a large bull, tarzan fresco depicting Mycenaean warriors killing barbarians, minyan ware from the middle Helladic and banded wares from the late Helladic mycenean areas

carl blegen

excavated pylos in 1939 through trench excavations and found some of the most important mycenean findings like Linear B tablets, a continuation of writing after Linear A was abandoned that we can actually understand, these tablets show a centralized economy, controlled agriculture by palace elite, distribution of resources, and state banquets/public gatherings

Michael ventris

1952 deciphered Linear B as an early form of Greek, it is a mix of syllabic signs, ideograms, and numerals

wanax

Linear B originated word for the Greek word for king

basileus

the Linear B originating word for chief or local leader, later meaning king

ramses III monument

a monument for ramses III in Egypt in his battle against the sea invaders that he won, because of the style of the monument, likely the people on different boats with shields were the sea people, possibly the Mycenaeans but it is unsure

tawagalawa letter

a letter from the Hittite king to king of the ahhiyawa and their conflict and talking about sea people invading

dark ages

1200-700 BC, the end of the Bronze Age brought about economic collapse possibly resulting from climate change, excess population, class warfare, land overexploitation, interruptions of trade, etc, palaces were not rebuilt with their sudden destruction, the only skill left was pottery, the continuity was gods and goddesses, worship at peak sanctuaries, and female figurines, iron age/post palatial with oikos organization

lefkandi

a settlement in Euboea from the bronze and Iron Age and archaic period where there was a long toumba structure built for the burial of two people, their goods, and their horses, likely the heroic burial of elite people, people buried themselves close to this structure

heroon

shrine dedicated to a Greek hero used for cult worship of this hero, possibly what the toumba in lefkandi is since people buried themselves near it

dipylon amphora

late geometric period 900-700 BC between dark ages and archaic period, found outside the dipylon gate at kerameikos in the potters corner it was used as a female grave marker where people would tend to the dead by pouring libations that would seep into the earth, it had animal friezes, meanders, and prothesis (the dead surrounded by mourners), highly specialized work done by a dipylon master who focused on these vases

eleusis amphora

excavated by George melons in the 30s and 50s and it dates back to 670-650 BC, it was found on its side with the skeleton of a child in it, likely used as a grave marker used to preserve the body found in it, one of the earliest protoattic style pieces of pottery

kerameikos

the cemetery for potters where the clay was good for pottery, lots of pots were used as grave markers to tend to and honor the dead

necropolis

city of the dead, graveyards used to bury dead people mostly found outside of the polis/city

tomb of the rich athenian lady

tomb filled with imported luxury items, pottery, and cosmetics for an athenian lady, it reveals her high social rank and wealth but also her role in society and the display of wealth and trade in Athens, found near the agora and acropolis in 1967 and dates back to 850 BC Athens, change of athenian funerary practices towards more simple burials and public monuments rather than elite tombs

aristonothos krater

a krater used to mix water and wine found in an Etruscan tomb at Cervetri in the 19th century and dates to 650 BC, it was made by a Greek artists for an Etruscan patron and depicts the first greek artists’s signature, side A shoes the Homeric myth of Odysseus blinding the cyclops along with the signature of aristonothos, side B’s origin is unknown but it is possibly merchant or battleships but the story is unknown but possibly between mycenaeans and Etruscans

polis

A Greek city center area with a wall, harbor, temple, market, and assembly space that people lived in, depending on your polis, people identified different and had different practices

tripod

a three legged bowl used in religious rituals, it would be used for blood sacrifices and also figurines were also made to look like tripods, they existed in the Bronze Age and used for cooking sacrificial victims

Hesiod

the poet who wrote Theogony and Works and Days around 700 BC complaining about farming, life, and his brother, people started writing more poetry about everyday life

orientalizing

artistic motifs inspired from the east and Egypt and found in pottery styles like photo-attic and proto-corinthian like rosettes, palmettos, lotuses, animal friezes, and mythological creatures

black figure

a technique using silhouette with incision and added color, it is more developed later in Athens but it is part of orientalizing art and 8th century production in the geometric style

etruscan

ancient Italian people in what is now Tuscany who appreciated Greek pottery and got a lot of goods from the Greeks

protocorinthian

greek pottery style using black figure paintings from around 650 BC

polychrome

using many colors like in protocorinthian pottery

iconography

symbols, images, and motifs that describe cultures, their beliefs, and their history, moral elements, traditional shapes, new designs