biol 207 final exam

Alveolar cells (Type 1 and 2)

produce pulmonary surfactant to reduce surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse.

Pulmonary Surfactant

Reduces surface tension of water in alveoli to prevent collapse.

Dead Space

Tubes like trachea and bronchioles that do not allow gas diffusion and take up fresh air during each breath.

Restrictive Diseases

Include pulmonary fibrosis and respiratory distress syndrome, which limit lung expansion.

Obstructive Diseases

Include asthma, edema (can also classify as restrictive), COPD, and emphysema, obstructing airflow - can't EXHALE properly

Hemoglobin Binding Curve

Shows hemoglobin saturation; 98% at PO2 of 100 mmHg and 75% at PO2 of 40 mmHg.

Right Shift in Hemoglobin Curve

Occurs with increased temperature, acid, or CO2 (Bohr effect), reducing oxygen binding affinity.

VO2 Max

Maximum oxygen consumption; increases with aerobic training and is tightly linked to heart rate.

substrate utilization during exercise

changes with intensity

Fick's Law of Diffusion

Rate of diffusion increases with area and concentration gradient, decreases with distance or thickness.

Oxygen Transport in Blood

Most oxygen is bound to hemoglobin for transport.

Carbon Dioxide Transport in Blood

Most carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the blood.

Partial Pressure of Oxygen (PO2)

160 mmHg in atmosphere, 100 mmHg in alveoli and systemic arterial blood, 40 mmHg in systemic venous blood.

Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide (PCO2)

0 mmHg in atmosphere, 46 mmHg in blood, 40 mmHg in alveoli.

Fats cannot sustain high-intensity exercise so

carbohydrates are essential for high-intensity energy.

Short-Distance Chemical Messengers

Paracrines and neurotransmitters act locally, unlike hormones.

Hormones and Neurohormones

Released into the blood and bind with specific target cell receptors.

Trophic Hormones

Stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones.

Nontrophic Hormones

Act directly on regular cells to produce effects.

Paracrine Signals

Local chemical messengers that act on adjacent cells, like histamine for inflammation.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

"FLATPG: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Growth Hormone."

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH) are secreted from the posterior pituitary.

Pancreatic Hormones

Glucagon from alpha cells increases blood sugar; insulin from beta cells decreases blood sugar.

Insulin Function

Moves glucose into cells and promotes its use or storage.

Glucagon Function

Increases blood sugar levels during fasting by stimulating glucose release.

Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 (autoimmune, juvenile-onset) and Type 2 (adult-onset, insulin resistance).

Symptoms of Diabetes

Include thirst, frequent urination, metabolic starvation, acidic blood pH, coma, and heart failure.

Male Accessory Glands

Prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands add volume and activation enzymes to sperm.

Pathway of Sperm

Vas deferens transports sperm from testes; cut during vasectomy.

Seminiferous Tubules

Site of sperm formation and storage.

Sperm Formation

Occurs in seminiferous tubules, takes 64-72 days to complete, producing 4 sperm from one original cell.

Ovaries

Produce and release eggs, as well as secrete hormones.

Fimbriae

Guide egg from ovary into fallopian tubes for potential fertilization.

Ampulla

Region in fallopian tubes where fertilization typically occurs.

Uterus

Receives fertilized egg for implantation; forms placenta or sheds lining during menstruation.

Follicular Phase

Variable phase beginning with menstruation and ending with ovulation.

Luteal Phase

Lasts 13 days; begins after ovulation and ends with menstruation or persists during pregnancy.

Ovulation

Triggered by LH, FSH, and estrogen surges.

Pregnancy Hormones

hCG signals implantation; estrogen and progesterone levels increase during pregnancy.

Oral Contraceptives

Use estrogen and progesterone to prevent ovulation and thicken cervical mucus.

Kidney Nephrons

Cortical nephrons (80%) handle filtration; juxtamedullary nephrons (20%) concentrate urine.

Glomerulus

Capillary network in the kidney that filters plasma.

Bowman's Capsule

Structure in nephron that collects filtrate from the glomerulus.

Fenestrae

Small pores in glomerular capillaries that allow plasma to filter out.

Basement Membrane

Part of glomerular filter; negatively charged to repel proteins and prevent their filtration.

Podocytes

Specialized cells wrapping around glomerular capillaries, controlling filtration.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

Rate of plasma filtration in kidneys, averaging 125 mL/min.

Clearance

Rate of substance removal from blood by kidneys; glucose has zero clearance due to full reabsorption.

Reabsorption in Kidneys

Most water and glucose are reabsorbed in peritubular capillaries near nephron.

Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

Released by hypothalamus/posterior pituitary to conserve water in kidneys.

Scrotum

Regulates temperature for sperm production, keeping testes 10°F/3°C cooler than body temperature.

Seminal Vesicles

Produce alkaline fluid with sugar, contributing 60% of semen volume.

Prostate Gland

Secretes enzymes that activate sperm.

Female Anatomy

Ovaries store eggs; uterine tubes guide eggs to uterus for implantation if fertilized.

Follicles

Structures in ovaries that develop and release eggs during ovulation.

Menopause

Marks the end of egg release and menstrual cycles, typically after ~500 eggs are released.

Cervix

Opening to the uterus that facilitates sperm entry and menstrual flow exit.

Fertilization

Occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube; fertilized egg secretes hCG to maintain the uterine lining.

Gender Differences in Exercise

women rely on fat metabolism and men rely on carbohydrates

Fats cannot sustain high-intensity exercise so _______

carbohydrates are essential for high intensity.

Most water and sugar is

reabsorbed immediately in peritubular capullaries from nephron

During exercise fats are

50% of energy, but as exercise intensity increases, the body shifts to rely more on carbohydrates for energy