chapter 2 ap psych vocab list

Theory

A broad explanation or model based on evidence that attempts to explain and predict phenomena. For example, Freud's theory of personality explains how unconscious drives shape our actions.

Naturalistic observation

A research method in which the researcher observes subjects in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory, often framed as an "If...then..." statement. For example, "If children are exposed to educational videos, then they will perform better on cognitive tasks."

Longitudinal study

A research method that follows the same participants over a long period of time to observe changes and developments.

Operational Definitions

Clear, precise descriptions of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study. For example, “aggression” might be operationally defined as the number of times a child hits another child during a 10-minute period.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable. For example, “type of music played” in a study on how music affects concentration.

Random Presentation

The random assignment of participants or random presentation of stimuli to eliminate bias and ensure that results are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, not other factors.

Data

The collected information or measurements from an experiment, often in numerical form, used to support or reject a hypothesis.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable. For example, the number of correct answers in a cognitive task after listening to music

Replicate

To repeat a study to see if the same results can be achieved, ensuring reliability and confirming findings.

Confounding or Extraneous Variables

Variables other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable and lead to inaccurate conclusions. These should be controlled or accounted for in the study. For example, a sleep deprivation study might have confounding variables like caffeine intake, which can also affect performance.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

Control group

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.

Random assignment

The process of randomly assigning participants to either the experimental or control group to minimize pre-existing differences between groups.

Ex post facto

A research design where the independent variable is not manipulated but instead occurs naturally, and the researcher looks at its effects after the fact.

Correlation study

A research method used to examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It shows whether a relationship exists but does not prove causation.

Survey

A method of data collection involving asking participants questions, typically in the form of questionnaires or interviews.

Cross-sectional study

A research method that compares participants from different age groups or backgrounds at a single point in time to observe differences or trends.

Cohort-sequential study

A research method combining elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies by studying multiple cohorts over time.

Expectancy bias

When a researcher’s expectations or beliefs about the outcome of an experiment influence the results or participants' behavior.

Hawthorne effect

A phenomenon where participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed.

Double-blind study

A research design where both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group, to prevent bias from affecting the results.

Ethics

A set of moral principles that guide researchers in conducting experiments, ensuring the safety, dignity, and rights of participants are respected.

Informed consent

A process where participants are fully informed about the nature of the study, its risks, and their rights, and they voluntarily agree to participate.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true purpose of the study after it is completed, especially if any deception was used during the research.

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