PSYC Ch. 7

Stimulus

anything that can be sensed by an individual

nonassociative learning

an increase or decrease in response due to repeated applications of a single stimulus that is not linked to any other stimulus. examples are habituation and sensitization

associative learning

occurs when new information is required due to a connection between two things. these two things could be stimuli, as in classical condition, or a consequence and a stimulus, as in operant conditioning

Habituation

Repeated and prolonged applications of a relevant stimulus cause an individual's response to gradually decrease. Imagine how you get used to construction noise after a while

Effect of duration on habituation

if the stimulus is not applied for long enough duration, reintroduction will produce spontaneous recovery of the response

effect of frequency on habituation

more frequent the stimulus, the faster the habituation

effect of intensity on habituation

the more intense the stimulus, the slower the habitation

affect of change the habituation

changing the intensity or duration can erase the effect of habituation

Dishabituation

the sudden temporary removal of habituation due to another stimulus. do not confuse with Extinction, as habituation requires a new stimulus that draws attention to the habituated stimulus

Sensitization

occurs when the repeated application of a stimulus leads to progressively stronger responses. like how neurons that fire together will wire together

classical conditioning

a form of associative learning that changes involuntary Behavior. requires an unconditioned stimulus that transfers its conditioned stimulus to a neutral stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus and naturally (without learning) produces a response. Meat (US) causing a dog to salivate (UR)

unconditioned response

no conditionings required for this response. Meat (US) causing the dog to salivate (UR)

Neutral stimulus

Does not evoke any desired response initially during conditioning. such as a bell (NS) ringing for Hungry dogs

conditioned response

when the response is associated with a new stimulus. such as the dog has learned (been conditioned) to respond by salivating when the bell rings

conditioned stimulus

The stimulus that evokes a learned behavior. such as a ringing Bell (CS) now causing dogs to salivate

acquisition in classical conditioning

the point at which the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus

Extinction

when gradually, over time, the conditioned response is extinguished. such as the Dog not salivating anymore because no meat was presented with previous Trials of bell ringing

spontaneous recovery

the return of the conditioned response spontaneously

renewal effect

if a conditioned response is acquired in a certain environment and is extinguished in a separate environment, then returning to the first environment may cause the conditioned response to come back. like a dog salivates and a lab, but does now when he is at home, yet the salivation returns when he comes back to the lab

stimulus generalization

when a different (yet similar) stimulus evokes the same conditioned response. think of a buzzer instead of a bell for dog salivation

stimulus discrimination

the ability to learn to discriminate between similar conditioned stimulus.

aversive conditioning

attempts to change your behavior by associating an undesired Behavior, neutral stimulus, with an unpleasant experience, unconditioned response. biting nails (NS) painted with bad tasting Nail Polish (UCS) that causes disgust (UCR)

graduated exposure therapy or systematic desensitization

gradually substitutes the anxiety response with the relaxation response. has three phases: (1) reciprocal inhibition: a relaxation response that replaces anxiety response (2) fear hierarchy list: exposures are listed in graduated order from least anxiety producing to most anxiety producing (3) actual Exposure: the patient works his way up to the list while practicing replacement of the anxiety response with the relaxation response

Flooding

A therapeutic technique done suddenly where the patient is exposed to the actual object of fear instead of working their way up

implosive therapy

when a patient is typically asked to imagine the object of their own fear

counterconditioning

When a desired response replaces an unwanted response to a stimulus. This is done by observing the original stimulus/response pair and adding a second stimulus design to counteract the original stimulus

Operant conditioning

the type of associative learning that focuses on voluntary Behavior using consequences such as: reinforcement and Punishment

positive consequence

something is added

negative consequence

something is removed

Reinforcement

makes response more likely by rewarding it. reward could be adding something positive or removing something negative. reinforcement is a more effective tool then punishment for establishing a desirable Behavioral

Punishment

makes response less likely by punishing the response. the punishment may be positive by adding something unpleasant or it may be negative such as the removal of privileges

Primary reinforcer

something that is naturally or innately rewarding, such as food or sleep

secondary reinforcer

requires conditioning to be rewarding, such as money

primary punisher

naturally or innately unpleasant, like pain

secondary Punisher

requires conditioning to be unpleasant, such as criticism or demerits

Shaping

a behavioral training technique used to teach new behaviors or modify existing ones by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior

Extinction burst

a brief increase in the response before gradually extinguishes

Escape learning

when an individual acquires a response that decreases or ends an unpleasant stimulus. response occurs after the aversive stimulus is applied

Avoidance learning

Similar to escape learning, but the response occurs before the aversive stimulus is applied

continuous reinforcement and Punishment schedule

the reinforcer is provided each time the target responses performed

intermittent reinforcement and Punishment schedule

means that sometimes when the target response is performed, the reinforcer is not provided. such as your paycheck

fixed ratio schedule

the target response earns a reinforcer every nth time it is performed. some sales bonuses are on a fixed ratio schedule where the salesman is paid for every third or fourth sale

variable ratio schedule

the target response earns a reinforcer, on average, every nth time it is performed. this is the most resistant Extinction and gambling is an example

fixed interval schedule

only the first Target response performed after a fixed time interval earns a reinforcer. such as pay periods.

variable interval schedule

only the first Target response performed after a variable interval of time earns a reinforcer. Such as checking your email

What type of schedules tend to produce responses that are difficult to extinguish?

variable

latent learning

occurs without stimulus or reward. Behavior change is delayed and the change is not expressed until it is required. An example is when two sets of mice were exposed to a maze, one was rewarded for solving the maze from the beginning while the other one was not awarded until after a week. yet it was found that the mice with the delayed reward figured out how to solve the maze faster, which might be because they learned their way throughout the maze but they were not rewarded for explicitly solving the maze until after a week

Cognitive map

an example of latent learning were an individual builds a map of their environment in their head

does classical and operant conditioning involve cognition?

yes

innate learning or behavior

refers to behavior control mostly by genes and receives little influence from the environment

biological predisposition

also called biological preparedness, it limits and facilitates learning within a given species. An example is that you cannot teach a rat to hold a pencil due to their limitations

Instinctive drift

under certain conditions and over time, instinctual Behavior test to replace learned behavior. such as a dog trained not to bark, barking when stressed. this is what trainers of animals want to avoid

biological predisposition in taste aversion

Taste aversion

when a person becomes ill after eating a food and afterward avoids that food. likely has some evolutionary value as a protection mechanism against eating poisonous foods as this is a mistake that cannot be made too often in nature

latent inhibition

an example is taste aversion

observational learning

when an individual can change his behavior based on the observation of the behavior of another individual. demonstrates that direct experience is not needed for learning and demonstrates the importance of cognition and learning

Model

if individual A learns by observing the learning process of individual B than individual B is the model

social cognitive theory in observational learning

proposed by Albert bandura it stays there are certain mental processes that must take place for observational learning to occur: (1) attention: The Observer must be paying attention to the model (2) retention: The Observer must remember the behavior (3) production: the Observer must be able to produce the response without physical or mental limitations (4) motivation: The Observer must be motivated to copy the behavior. [Mnemonic: PARM]

empathetic emotions

when an observer places himself in the position of another person and feels the same emotions as that person

mirror neurons

neurons that fire both when the individual performs or observes another person perform a behavior in a process called mirroring

Mentalizing

occurs when the Observer feels the emotions that he thinks the social Target should feel, but the social Target may or may not actually feel. these emotions are called vicarious emotions (such as being embarrassed for someone else even when they are not embarrassed)

Diffusion chain

a type of observational learning where one person observes a behavior in copies it, then becoming a model for others to do the same

reciprocal determinism

idea that not only could the environment influence behavior individual, but behavior and individual factors could influence the environment as well

Bobo doll experiment

Showed a film of an adult displaying aggressive behavior towards an inflated doll to one group of kids and not to another. It was observed that the kids who observed the violence would then also reenact the violence against the dolls when given the chance

learning performance distinction

the idea that just because you don't perform a behavior does not mean you didn't learn it. occurred during the Bobo doll experiment when some kids who watched the violent videos did not act violently until they were bribed by the experimenters to do so

insight learning

the occurrence of an epiphany after deep contemplation. inside learning is always accompanied by a preliminary deep thinking stage followed by sudden realization

Self-concept

the person's mental image of himself

Self-actualize

the drive that a person has to become the best version of himself

Self-image

the current version of oneself with the hopes of becoming the ideal self

ideal self

the best version of oneself

existential self

the awareness that there is a self that is different from other people

categorical self

the ability of the person to use categories to Define himself

Social identity Theory

argues that self-esteem relies on two types of identity: personal identity and social identity

personal identity

the set of qualities that characterizes a person, and include parts of his identity related to group identity

social identity

made up of the groups to which a person belongs and how he feel about being in them

self categorization Theory

Argues that groups are a fundamental part of human identity and that people use categories to make sense of the world around them. People sort things into categories, and then they will identify with the values and Norms of these groups

social identity approach

researchers who use both the social identity Theory and self categorization Theory

Self-esteem

someone's perception of their own worth as a person

Self-efficacy

refers to the person's belief in their ability to accomplish a particular task. A more specific term than self-esteem

Mastery experience for self-efficacy

happens when a person successfully completes a task and are the strongest drivers of self-efficacy

social modeling for self-efficacy

is where observing others that a person identifies with changes their self-efficacy. In general, seeing someone similar to oneself succeed at a task increases self-efficacy

social persuasion for self-efficacy

is typically direct encouragement or discouragement that comes from other people. encouragement increases self-efficacy

physical/psychological training for self-efficacy

includes strength training and other methods that can help increase self-efficacy on a broad scale

Self-control

a person's ability to override thoughts and emotions to regulate his own behavior

Temptations

desires that conflict with the person's values or goals

marshmallow experiment

an experiment of self-control in which children were given the choice between eating one marshmallow now or waiting and receiving two marshmallows. Kids with better self-control tended to have better life outcomes later in life

ego depletion

related to the idea of self-control. posits that self-control's a limited resource and depletes when people resist Temptations. so when people have low energy levels that are more likely to have less self control

internal locus of control

belief that people have total control over, and complete responsibility for, everything that happens to them

external locus of control

belief that people have no control over anything that happens to them

learned helplessness

when people stop trying to avoid unpleasant situations after repeated exposure to bad things that happened to them that are out of their control

Choice overload

occurs when people have too much control over decisions and too many options to choose from. results in a hard time making a decision and more regret afterwards

psychosexual theory of identity development

proposed that children progress through a series of five stages that represent changes where they direct their libido. if a child gets stuck in one of the stages then they are said to be fixated (mnemonic: old age parrots love grapes)

oral stage

a child will be centered around his mouth and drives behaviors like eating. a fixation occurs then person might have problems with smoking and nail biting

anal stage

child during the stage is focused on his anus which is expected to help him learn toilet training. fixation of the stage causes Obsession as adults

phallic stage

child libido's concentrated on the genitals, driving masturbation. fixation in the stage can lead to sexual dysfunctions

Oedipus Complex

a phenomenon in which a boy resents his father due to a sexual desire for his mother

Latent stage

a child libido is suppressed and children direct their energy to learn how to interact with people outside of their families. no fixation at the stage

genital stage

libido returns and is directed again toward the genitals, but instead of one's own genitals it is focused on genitals of other people

psychosocial stages of development (Erikson)

proposes eight stages that every individual goes through with each stage being marked by a crisis, which is a conflict between two competing psychological factors