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data aggregation
the process of collecting and organizing large amounts of information
spatial perspective
a geographic perspective that seeks to identify and explain the uses of space
spatial patterns
the placement or arrangement of subjects on earth’s surface; also includes the space between those objects
time-distance delay
also known as the “first law of geography”; the idea that near things are more related than distant things, and interaction between two places decreases the farther apart they are
absolute direction
corresponds to the direction on a compass: north, south, east, west, and combinations such as northwest and southeast
map scale
the distance on a map in relation to distance in actual space
scale
the territorial extent of an idea or object
absolute distance
the distance the can be measured with a standard unit of length, such as a foot, yard, mile, or kilometer
relative distance
a measurement of the level of social, cultural, or economic similarity between places despite their absolute distance from each other
relative direction
a direction that can be describes as position, such as in front of or behind, to the left or to the right
elevation
distance above sea level
reference map
a map that shows geographic locations on earth’s surface, such as the locations of cities or oceans
thematic map
a map that emphasizes the spatial patterns of geographic statistics or attributes, and sometimes the relationships between them
census
an official count or survey of a population, typically recording various details about individuals, such as age, sex, and race
fieldwork
learning and doing research involving first-hand experience, which takes place outside the classroom setting
absolute location
a precise location on earth’s surface
prime meridian
the zero-degree longitude line that runs through Greenwich, england; also known as the Greenwich meridian
global positioning system
a system of 24 satellites that orbit earth twice daily and transmit radio signals earthward; the basis for many map-based apps
geographic information system
a software application for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on earth’s surface; allows the rapid manipulation of geospatial data for problem solving and research
remote sensing
the scanning of earth by satellite or high-flying aircraft in order to obtain information about it
aerial photography
remote-sensing photography that produces fine-grained, high-resolution, highly detailed images
satellite imagery
images of earth’s surface gathered from sensors mounted on orbiting satellites; these sensors record in both the visible and non-visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, allowing humans to view patterns and processes that are both visible and invisible to the naked eye
relative location
the position of one place (or person) in relation to another place (or person)
cultural landscape
the built forms that cultural groups create in inhabiting earth—farm fields, cities, houses, and so on—and the meaning, values, representations, and experiences associated with those forms
time-space compression
the decreasing distance between places as measured by travel time or cost; often summarized by the phrase “the world is shrinking”
interdependence
the ties established between regions and countries that over time collectively create a global economic system that is not necessarily based on equality
geographic processes
the physical and human forces that work together and transform the world
diffusion
the pattern by which a phenomenon such as the movement of people, or their ideas, technologies, or preferences, spreads from a particular location through space and time
independent invention
occurs when the same or a very similar innovation is developed at the same time in different places by different people working independently
friction of distance
the inhibiting effect of distance on the intensity and volume of most human interaction; time-space compression diminished friction of distance
ecology
a biological science concerned with studying the complex relationships among living organisms and their physical environments
cultural ecology
the study of the interactions between societies and their local environments
ecosystem
a territorially bounded system consisting of the interactions between humans and their environment
environmental perception
the mental images that comprise humans perception of nature; environmental perception may be accurate or inaccurate
natural hazard
a physical danger present in the environment, such as a flood, hurricane, volcanic eruption, and earthquake
natural resources
materials or substances that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain
nonrenewable resources
natural resources that are available on earth in finite quantities and will eventually be used up
renewable resources
natural resources that earth will naturally replenish over time
greenhouse gasses
compounds in the atmosphere from fossil-fuel combustion, such as carbon dioxide, that absorb and trap heat energy close to earth’s surface
greenhouse effect
the global warming trend caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide
environmental determination
the belief that the physical environment is the dominant force shaping cultures and that humanity is a passive product of its physical surroundings
possibilism
the belief that any physical environment affects a number of possible ways for a society to develop and that humans can find ways to over some environmental challenges
global scale
geographic scale that looks at geographic phenomena across the entire world
regional scale analysis
geographic scale that identifies and analyzes geographic phenomena within a particular region
national scale analysis
geographic scale that identifies and analyzes geographic phenomena within a specific country
local scale analysis
geographic scale that identifies and analyzes geographic phenomena within a state or province, a city or town, or neighborhood
global perspective
geographic perspective that acknowledges the two-way relationship between local communities and global patterns, emphasizing that the forces of globalization need to take into account local scale cultural, economic, and environmental conditions
region
a geographical unit based on one or more common characteristics or functions
formal region
a geographical area inhabited by people who have one or more traits in common
border zone
a region where cultural markers overlap and blend into a recognizable border culture
functional region
a geographic area that has been organized to function politically, socially, culturally, or economically as one unit
nodes
central points where the functions of a functional region are coordinated and directed
metropolitan area
an area composed of a heavily populated urban core and its less populated surrounding areas
perceptual/vernacular region
a geographic area that is perceived to exist by its inhabitants, based in the widespread acceptance and use of a unique regional name
activity space
where a person goes and what he or she does on a day-to-day basis
regional identity
the awareness of belonging to a group of people within a region
contested boundaries
boundaries that are disputed for religious, political, or cultural reasons
regional analysis
the process of examining patterns and processes within and between regions at multiple geographic scales (local, national, regional, and global)
population distribution
the pattern in which humans are spread out on earths surface
arithmetic (crude) density
the average number of people per unit of land area (usually square mile or kilometer)
physiological density
the average number of people per unit area of arable land
ecumene
the portion of earth’s surface with permanent human settlement
agricultural density
the number of farmers per unit of arable land
carrying capacity
the number of people a particular environment or earth as a whole can support on a sustainable basis
dependency ratio
the number of dependents in a population, that each 100 working age people (ages 15 to 64 years) must support
youth dependency ratio
the number of young dependents in a population (usually people younger than 15) that every 100 working age people must support
elderly dependency ratio
the number of elderly dependents in a population (usually people older than 64 years) that every 100 working age people must support
infanticide
the practice of killing infants
population pyramid
a very useful graphic device for comparing age and sex structure
demographic equation
the method for calculating total population of a country or place based on natural increase and migration over a period of time
crude birth rate
the average number of births per 1000 people; the traditional way of measuring birth rates
low birth rate
a crude birth rate between 10 and 20 births per 1000 people
high birth rate
a crude birth rate of more than 30 per 1000 people
total fertility rate
the average number of children born per woman during her reproductive lifetime, considered to be from 15 to 49 years of age
replacement level fertility
the average number of children needed to replace both parents and stabilize population over time
crude death rate
the number of deaths per year per 1000 people
infant mortality rate
a measure of how many infants die within the first year of their life per 1000 births
rate of natural increase
the difference between the number of births and deaths in a given year, when expressed as a percentage of total population
zero population growth
when a country has the same number of births and deaths in a given year, its RNI is zero
doubling time
the number of years it takes for a population to double in size
demographic transition model
conceptualizes how crude birth rate and crude death rate as well as the resulting rate of natural increase change over time as countries go through industrialization and urbanization
epidemiology
a branch of medicine that studies the distribution, determinants, and control of diseases and other health conditions, such as tobacco use and lifestyle
malthusian theory
humans ability to reproduce far exceeds their ability to increase food production
overpopulation
occurs when the human population exceeds the food supply
boserup effect
increase in food production resulting from the use of new farming methods
antinatalist policies
designed to curtail population growth by reducing fertility rates
pronatalist policies
designed to boost fertility rates and ultimately population growth
womens status
the degree of equality between men and women with respect to access to and control over both physical and social resources in the family, community, and society at large
womens empowerment
the increased autonomy of women to make choices and shape their lives
median age
the age that divides a population into two halves so that one half is younger than this age and the other half older
life expectancy
the number of years a person can expect to live from birth
mortality
origin
a persons location before migration
emigration
the act of a migrant leaving their place of origin
immigration
the act of a migrant arriving at their destination country
migration stream
the flow of all migrants from an origin to a destination
brain drain
the phenomenon where a country or a place loses young, more educated, and skilled people through migration
push-pull theory of migration
theory asserting that two contrasting sets of factors are at work in migration desicions
guest worker
a person with temporary permission to work into another country
transitional migration
when migrants move back and forth between their home countries and those to which they have migrated
