Modern Psychology and Scientific Method for Exams

Flashcards covering key concepts from modern psychology, including research methods, statistical analysis, and ethical considerations, based on your lecture notes.

What is Positive Psychology?

It uses theory and research to understand the positive aspects of human existence, focusing on positive subjective experiences, individual traits, and institutions/communities.

What is the central premise of Evolutionary Psychology?

Natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical characteristics, studying the adaptive value of behavioral processes.

What is ethnocentrism, as discussed in the context of cultural/diversity issues in psychology?

Viewing one's own group as superior and as the standard to judge against others, historically seen in psychology through the study of middle- and upper-class white males by similar researchers.

How is Psychology defined today?

It is the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies this accumulated knowledge to practical problems.

Name two major research areas in psychology.

Examples include Personality, Health Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, Educational Psychology, Experimental Psychology, or Psychometrics.

What are three key themes related to psychology as a field of study?

Psychology is empirically based, theoretically diverse, and evolves in a sociohistorical context.

What are the three main goals of the scientific enterprise in psychology?

Measurement and description, understanding and prediction, and application (practical value).

In scientific research, what is a hypothesis?

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

What is a 'variable' in scientific study?

Measurable events, conditions, or behaviors that are controlled and/or observed in a study.

What is an 'operational definition' in research?

It clarifies precisely what is meant by each variable, specifying the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control the variable.

What role do statistics play in psychological research?

Statistics are used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported, converting observations into numbers for comparison.

What are the core steps in a scientific investigation?

Formulate a testable hypothesis, select the research method and design, collect the data, analyze the data and draw conclusions, and report the findings.

What are the advantages of the scientific approach to studying behavior?

Clarity and precision (no room for ambiguity) and intolerance of error (skepticism, empirical testing, data transparency, peer review, replication).

What is an 'experiment' in psychological research?

The manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed to detect cause-and-effect relationships.

What is the difference between an Independent Variable (IV) and a Dependent Variable (DV)?

The IV is the variable being manipulated by the researcher, while the DV is the variable that is affected by the manipulation and measured.

What is a 'confounding variable' in an experiment?

An extraneous variable that is linked to both the independent and dependent variables, making it difficult to determine the exact relationship and providing an alternative explanation for observed results.

What is the primary advantage of experimental research?

It allows for conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships to be drawn.

When are descriptive/correlational research methods used?

These methods are used when a researcher cannot practically or ethically manipulate the variables under study.

What is 'naturalistic observation'?

A research method where a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without interacting directly with subjects in their natural environment.

What is a 'case study' in psychological research?

In-depth examinations of an individual participant or a small group of participants, often used to study specific psychological disorders or rare phenomena.

What is the 'placebo effect' in research?

When participants' expectations make them report some change or improvement, even though the treatment they receive is inert, fake, or ineffectual.

What is 'experimenter bias'?

When a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained, potentially affecting both observations and participant behavior.

What is the 'double-blind procedure' designed to prevent?

It is designed to prevent both placebo effects and experimenter bias by ensuring neither participants nor experimenters know who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group.

Why is 'replication' important in scientific research?

Replication, the repetition of a study, is essential to confirm findings, identify and eliminate inaccurate results or those due to chance, and ensure reliability and validity.

What are 'descriptive statistics' used for?

Organizing and summarizing numerical data, including measures of central tendency, variability, and correlation.

What are 'inferential statistics' used for?

Interpreting data and drawing conclusions, specifically to determine if observed findings support a hypothesis and if they are real or due to chance.

Explain 'statistical significance' in hypothesis testing.

Statistical significance means that the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low, typically set at fewer than 5 chances in 100 (p < 0.05), indicating a real effect.

What does it mean if two variables are 'correlated'?

It means they are related to each other, and either vary in the same direction (positive correlation) or in opposite directions (negative correlation).

Does 'correlation infer causation'?

No, correlation does not infer a cause-and-effect relationship; two variables can be highly correlated but not causally related, often due to a third underlying variable.

What is 'sampling bias'?

It occurs when a study's sample does not accurately represent the larger population of interest, leading to findings that may not generalize.

What is the 'WEIRD bias' in psychological research?

It refers to the reliance on participants from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic countries, which can be problematic if claiming universality of findings.