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What is Consolidation Memory
A cognitive process that transforms new memories from a fragile state to a more permanent state. Breaks and sleep facilitate this process
How does sleep affect consolidation?
Sleep facilitates consolidation, making it easier for memories to stabilize in long-term memory.
What is long-term potentiation?
It is the enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation due to structural changes at the synapse
What is reactivation in memory?
The replay of memory orchestrated by the hippocampus during consolidation. Afterward, the hippocampus is mostly not required for memory retrieval.
What is retrograde amnesia?
Memory loss for events prior to a head injury, often graded, suggesting that the consolidation process takes time to stabilize memories.
How is long-term memory (LTM) divided?
Into explicit memory (episodic and semantic) and implicit memory (procedural, priming, and conditioning).
Define Episodic Memory
A type of explicit memory involving personal events and episodes, including the where and when. (Tulving 1972)
Define Semantic Memory
A type of explicit memory involving facts and general knowledge (Tucking 1972)
What Is Explicit Memory
Conscious memory that can be described, including episodic and semantic memory.
What is Implicit Memory
Memory that cannot be consciously accessed, including procedural memory, priming, and conditioning.
Define Procedural Memory
Memory for motor skills and tasks that are hard to describe verbally but are performed automatically, such as riding a bike.
What is Priming?
Improved efficiency in processing information after previous exposure, even without explicit memory retrieval.
What is Classical Conditioning?
Associating a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) to produce a conditioned response (e.g., salivation).
What is the mere exposure effect?
Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases preference for that stimulus without explicit awareness. (Zajjonc, 1968)
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for specific experiences from life, including sensory, semantic, and emotional components.
What is the sensory component of autobiographical memory?
The importance of sensory details, such as visual or olfactory elements, in recalling personal experiences.
How do semantic memories support autobiographical memory?
Semantic memories serve as building blocks, providing the factual basis for autobiographical memories.
What is the emotional component of autobiographical memory?
Emotional events are attended to and retrieved more often, with positive memories being more resistant to forgetting.
What is Flashbulb memory?
Highly emotional and vivid memory surrounding shocking or important events, such as 9/11. (Brown & Kulik, 1977)
What is the reminiscence bump?
The tendency to remember more events from adolescence and early adulthood (ages 10-30).
What is the self-image Hypothesis?
Memory is enhanced for events occurring during the formation of a person's self-image.
What is the cognitive hypothesis?
Encoding is better during periods of rapid change followed by stability.
What is the cultural life script hypothesis
Shared cultural expectations about significant life events make these events easier to recall.
What is source monitoring?
The process of determining the origin of memories, such as when, where, or how they were acquired. (Johnson et al., 1993)
Define source misattribution
Confusing the origin of a memory, such as thinking you heard information from one person when it came from another.
What is a schema?
A cognitive framework representing knowledge about a particular environment, guiding expectations and recall. (Barlett, 1932)
What is the Misinformation effect?
Misleading information presented after an event can alter memory for the original event. (Loftus & Palmer, 1974)
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrate?
The use of different words (e.g., "smashed" vs. "hit") affected participants' memory of a car accident.
What is the Butcher-in-the-bus phenomenon?
Recognizing someone without recalling specific details, such as their name or context.
Define reconsolidating
The process where reactivated memories become fragile and require restabilization, potentially altering the original memory.
What is System 1 thinking?
Fast, instinctive, and emotional thinking often used for immediate decisions. (Kahneman, 2011)
WHat is System 2 thinking?
Slow, effortful, and conscious thinking used when deliberating on complex decisions. (kahneman, 2011)
Define the availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. (Tversky & Kahneman 1973)
What influences the availability heuristic?
Frequency, ease of retrieval, recency, reporting, and saliency of events.
What is the Representativeness heuristic?
Judging the probability of an event based on how much it resembles a stereotype. (Tversky & Kahneman (1974)
Provide an example of representativeness heuristic
Assuming someone wearing glasses is a librarian because they fit the stereotype, ignoring base rates.
Define conjunctive fallacy
Mistakenly believing that a conjunction of events is more probable than a single event. (Tversky &Kahneman 1983)
What is anchoring in decision-making
Relying too heavily on an initial piece of information (the anchor) when making decisions. (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
Provide an example of anchoring
Estimating the price of a car based on the initial price suggested by the salesperson.
What is the Framing Effect?
Decisions are influenced by how choices are presented, even when outcomes are equivalent (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981).
Provide an example of the framing effect
Choosing a treatment described as having a 90% survival rate over one described as a 10% mortality rate.
What is base-rate neglect?
Ignoring the general probability of an event in favor of specific information.
Provide an example of base rate neglect
Believing a rare disease diagnosis without considering its low prevalence.
What is Satisficing?
Choosing an option that is "good enough" rather than the optimal one. (Simon 1956)
Define sunk cost fallacy
Continuing a project due to prior investment, even when it's no longer rational to do so.
What is utility theory?
The idea that decisions are made to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
What is subjective utility theory?
Decision-making based on the personal value and usefulness of outcomes to an individual.
What is the typicality effect?
Prototypical category members are processed faster and are more likely to be mentioned first. (Rosch, 1975)
Define category priming
Exposure to a category makes related members easier to process.
What is exemplar theory
Categories are represented by all known examples rather than a single prototype.
What is essentialism in categorization
Certain features are deemed crucial to an item's identity and category membership. (Medin & Ortony, 1989)
What is hierarchical organization in categorization?
Concepts are structured from general (superordinate) to specific (subordinate).
What is inductive reasoning?
Drawing conclusions about what is most probable based on evidence and past experience. (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
What is deductive reasoning?
Drawing conclusions about what must be true based on premises.
What is Syllogism?
A logical argument with two premises and a conclusion; the conclusion must follow if the premises are true.
What is confirmation bias?
Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence. (Nickerson, 1998)
What is the Wason Card Selection Task?
A test of logical reasoning where participants evaluate rules by testing potential falsifications. (Wason, 1968)
Provide an example of the Wason Card Selection Task
Testing the rule "if a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other side."
Define the permission schema
A cognitive framework used to determine if conditions for an action are met, facilitating reasoning tasks.
What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?
A cognitive bias where individuals with low expertise overestimate their ability. (Dunning & Kruger, 1999)
What is imposter syndrome?
A psychological phenomenon where high-achieving individuals doubt their accomplishments.
Define analogical transfer
Applying a solution from one problem to a structurally similar problem.
What is functional fixedness?
A cognitive bias restricting the use of objects to their traditional functions. (Duncker, 1945)
Provide an example of functional fixedness
Failing to see that a paperclip can be used as a makeshift hook.
What is the sunk cost fallacy?
The tendency to continue investing in a failing project due to prior investments.
What is the Difference between insight and non-insight problems?
Insight problems are solved suddenly, while non-insight problems require step-by-step solutions.
What is the prototype approach to categorization?
Representing a category by its most typical member.
What is the exemplar approach to categorization?
Representing a category by storing all known examples.
What is the typicality effect in categorization?
Prototypical items are processed faster and remembered more easily. (Rosch, 1975)
What is hierarchical organization?
Arranging concepts in levels from general (superordinate) to specific (subordinate).
What is the word superiority effect?
Letters are more easily recognized when part of a word compared to being isolated or in a non-word. (Reicher, 1969)
What is Bayes’ Rule?
A theorem describing how to update probabilities based on prior knowledge and new evidence. (Bayes, 1763)
What is satisficing in decision-making?
Choosing an option that meets minimum criteria rather than the optimal solution. (Simon, 1956)
What is the difference between necessary and sufficient information?
Necessary information is required to complete a task, while sufficient information is enough to complete it.
What is Language?
It is a shared tool for communicating which can use any sensory channel.
Needs to transmit information between >2 communicators
How do we Learn Language?
Innate & Learned
What is the innate way of language processing?
We are predisposed to acquire language
What is the learned way of language processing?
We learn language the same as anything else
What is the Cognitive view of language processing
innate. Language is special, and we learn it as a set of structures becasue we’re predisposed to do so
What is the Behaviourist view of language processing
We learn languge the way we learn any other skill, through operant conditioning
What is a lexicon in language?
A person’s mental dictionary containing all the words they understand, whether in speech or reading.
Define phonemes
The shortest segment of speech that changes the meaning of a word. For example, changing /p/ to /b/ in "pat" makes "bat."
What are morphemes?
The smallest units of language with meaning or grammatical function. Examples include "cat" (free morpheme) and "-s" in "cats" (bound morpheme).
What is phonemic restoration
When a missing phoneme in speech is "filled in" by listeners based on context. (Warren, 1970)
Define graphemes
Written symbols representing specific sounds in a language, such as letters in English.
What is orthographic mapping
The process of matching graphemes to phonemes in written language.
What are bound morphemes?
Free morphemes can stand alone as words (e.g., "cat"), while bound morphemes must attach to other morphemes (e.g., "-s").
What is the difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes?
Derivational morphemes change the meaning or part of speech of a word (e.g., "kind" to "unkind"), while inflectional morphemes modify tense, number, or aspect without changing meaning (e.g., "cat" to "cats").
