Self-esteem

What is self-esteem?

Self-esteem reflects how an individual feels about themselves and appraises their own worth.

What is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem?

• Self-concept = describes aspects of who you are (e.g., sporty, friendly, clever).

• Self-esteem = the value or worth you attach to those self-descriptions.

Example:
“I am sporty” = self-concept.
“I am good at sport and therefore feel good about myself” = self-esteem.

How does self-concept contribute to self-esteem?

• People develop perceptions of themselves across different areas of life

• They attach value to these perceptions, and together these evaluations contribute to overall/global self-esteem

Is self-esteem a single, simple construct?

NO

• Self-esteem is multidimensional and hierarchical, meaning it is made up of perceptions and evaluations across multiple areas of life.

What is global self-esteem?

An individual's overall evaluation of their worth or value.

What are examples of domains contributing to global self-esteem?

• Physical self-worth

• Academic self-worth

• Other life domains

How does the hierarchy of self-esteem work?

Specific sub-domains
↓
Broader domains
↓
Global self-esteem

For example:

Test performance → academic competence → academic self-worth → global self-esteem

Which levels of self-esteem are easiest to change?

Lower-level sub-domains are generally easier to change.

Which levels of self-esteem are hardest to change?

Higher-level domains are harder to change, and global self-esteem is the hardest to change.

Why is physical activity likely to have its strongest effects on lower-level self-perceptions?

PA directly provides opportunities to develop specific abilities and perceptions, which can influence beoader physical self-worth and potentially global self-esteem

Is self-esteem an antecedent or consequence of PA?

It can be both.

There is a potentially positive reciprocal cycle:

PA → improved physical competence/self-perceptions → higher self-esteem → greater motivation/confidence to participate in PA → more PA

How could higher self-esteem encourage physical activity?

Higher self-esteem may increase:

• Confidence

• Perceived competence

• Willingness to participate

• Motivation to engage in challenging activities

This can lead to more PA.

How could PA improve self-esteem?

PA can provide opportunities for:

• Skill development

• Physical competence

• Improved fitness

• Positive body perceptions

• Successful experiences

These can improve physical self-perceptions and potentially broader self-esteem.

What is the Physical Self-Perception Profile associated with?

Fox and Corbin (1989).

It examines perceptions across physical domains.

What three aspects can be assessed within physical self-perceptions?

• Ability

• Learning

• Confidence

Why are physical self-perceptions important when studying PA and self-esteem?

They represent more specific components of self-esteem and may be more directly influenced by PA than global self-esteem.

What is EXSEM?

The Exercise and Self-Esteem Model (EXSEM) is a framework for studying the relationship between physical activity/exercise and self-esteem.

Why is EXSEM useful?

It recognises that PA may not directly change global self-esteem. Instead, PA may first influence specific physical self-perceptions, which then influence higher-level self-worth.

The effect of PA may work from the bottom of the self-esteem hierarchy upward rather than directly changing global self-esteem.

Dale et al., 2019 What does systematic review evidence show about PA and self-esteem in children and youth?

There is weak to moderate evidence that PA improves self-esteem.

Dale et al., 2019 What was the most consistent finding in children and youth?

The most consistent evidence was for improvements in self-concept, rather than global self-esteem.

Dale et al., 2019 Which groups have shown evidence of benefits from PA?

A variety of groups, including:

• Overweight/obese individuals

• People with disabilities

• Typically developing children and youth

Dale et al., 2019 What type of exercise may be particularly effective for improving self-esteem in young people?

Supervised aerobic exercise showed some evidence of being particularly effective

Dale et al., 2019 Why might the evidence for PA and self-esteem in children/youth be relatively weak?

Possible reasons include:

• Poor study designs

• Self-esteem being a complex, multidimensional construct

• Different studies measuring different aspects of self-esteem

Tremblay et al., 2000 What relationship was found between vigorous physical activity and self-esteem in 12-year-olds?

There was a positive relationship:

More vigorous activity → higher self-esteem

Tremblay et al., 2000 What major limitation exists when interpreting this relationship?

The direction of causality is unclear.

We cannot determine whether:

More PA → higher confidence/self-esteem

or:

Higher confidence/self-esteem → more PA

This supports the possibility of a bidirectional relationship.

Braig et al., 2018 What was found regarding screen time and self-esteem in 11–13-year-olds?

Correlational research found:

More screen time → less satisfaction with friends

and:

Greater satisfaction with friends → higher self-esteem

Braig et al., 2018 Why is this evidence correlationally limited?

It cannot establish that screen time directly causes lower self-esteem. Other variables may influence both social satisfaction and self-esteem.

Spence et al., 2005 What is the overall relationship between PA and global self-esteem in adults?

There is a small positive association between PA and global self-esteem.

ES=0.23

Spence et al., 2005 What happens to the effect size when more specific aspects of self-esteem are examined?

he effect size increases.

Spence et al., 2005 What was the effect size associated with changes in fitness?

ES=0.32

Spence et al., 2005 What was the effect size associated with exercise + lifestyle?

ES=0.36

Spence et al., 2005 What does the adult evidence suggest about PA and global self-esteem?

here is insufficient evidence that PA directly affects global self-esteem, but stronger evidence suggests PA affects specific self-esteem domains, which may eventually contribute to global self-esteem.

What relationship exists between PA and BMI?

More PA is associated with lower BMI.

How is BMI related to body image

There is a positive relationship between BMI and body image

What relationship exists between perceived physical fitness and BMI?

There is a positive relationship between perceived physical fitness and BMI

McAuley et al., 2005 What happened to physical self-perceptions over a 4-year follow-up in older adults?

There were increases in perceptions of:

• Physical condition

• Body attractiveness

• Strength

McAuley et al., 2005 How did these changes influence self-esteem?

Improvements in these physical self-perceptions increased:

Physical self-worth → global self-esteem

McAuley et al., 2005 Where were the strongest relationships observed in older adults?

At the smaller/more specific domains rather than global self-esteem.

Why are perceptions of strength and physical condition particularly important for older adults?

Confidence in PA can influence whether older adults continue participating in PA

• Low confidence in ability to perform an activity such as walking → increased fear/chance of falling → reduced PA

Why might physical self-perceptions affect quality of life in older adults?

Perceived strength, physical condition and ability can influence independence, confidence and continued participation in activities, which can contribute to quality of life.

What is self-enhancement?

The motivation to maintain or increase positive self-esteem

How does self-enhancement influence behaviour?

People tend to:

• choose activities they believe they are good at

• seek opportunities to demonstrate competence

• expect positive outcomes

• avoid situations where they expect failure

• discount of avoid threats to self-esteem

Why can self-enhancement encourage PA?

If people choose physical activities where they feel competent and successful, PA can become a positive experience, potentially supporting lifelong participation

When can self-enhancement negatively affect PA?

When someone does not perceive themselves as skillful or competent at an activity:

• they may avoid it to protect their self-esteem

“I'm not sporty” → expects poor performance → avoids gym/sport → fewer opportunities to develop competence → self-perception remains negative.

What is self-presentation?

refers to how people attempt to present themselves to others and influence how they are viewed.

What are two goals of self-presentation?

People may try to present themselves:

1. In ways consistent with their own self-image

2. In ways consistent with the expectations/preferences of their audience

How can self-presentation concerns influence PA participation?

They can influence:

• Motivation to participate

• Selection of activities and environments

• Quality of engagement

• Affective responses to PA

Give an example of self-presentation affecting PA participation.

Someone who does not see themselves as “a gym person” may avoid going to the gym because they feel uncomfortable presenting themselves in that environment.

Why might self-presentation concerns be particularly strong when self-esteem is low?

People may feel a greater need to protect their self-concept and avoid situations where others could evaluate them negatively

What is social physique anxiety?

Anxiety resulting from the perceived evaluation of one's physique by others.

Why is social physique anxiety relevant to PA?

PA often occurs in environments where people may feel their bodies are being observed or evaluated.

This can lead people to:

• Avoid scrutiny

• Avoid activities that accentuate their physique

• Avoid particular exercise environments

• Potentially attempt to change their physique in harmful ways

How can social physique anxiety reduce PA?

Perceived evaluation of physique → anxiety → avoidance of PA environments/activities → reduced participation

A person may avoid the gym because they believe others will judge their body or physical ability. This demonstrates how self-presentation concerns can act as a barrier to PA, even when the person understands the health benefits of exercise.

What is true self-esteem?

Self-esteem that develops when psychological needs are met, particularly through:

• Autonomy

• Experiences of self-efficacy

• Feeling loved/valued for who you are rather than what you achieve

What is true self-esteem based on?

An individual's inherent sense of worth rather than meeting external standards or achieving particular outcomes.

What is contingent self-esteem?

Self-esteem that depends on meeting an external standard of excellence or expectation.

Why is contingent self-esteem vulnerable?

Because self-worth depends on successfully meeting a particular condition.

For example:

“I am only worthwhile if I do well in exams.”

If the condition is not met, self-esteem can decrease substantially.

: Why is social comparison relevant to contingent self-esteem?

Contingent self-esteem often depends on evaluating oneself against external standards or other people.

How could an athlete develop contingent self-esteem?

If their self-worth becomes strongly dependent on being an athlete:

Athletic identity → self-worth depends on athletic success → retirement/injury → loss of athletic role → self-esteem may collapse.