Ancient Rome Final

The Jewish War

The Jewish War (66–73 CE) was a major Jewish rebellion against Roman rule that led to the destruction of the Second Temple and a turning point in Jewish history. It began with a surprise Jewish attack on the Roman garrison in Jerusalem, followed by a failed Roman counterattack under Cestius Gallus, which boosted rebel morale. Emperor Nero then appointed Vespasian and his son Titus to crush the revolt, culminating in the brutal siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The final resistance at Masada ended with the rebels' mass suicide as Roman forces breached the fortress in 73–74 CE.

Septimius Severus (145-211)

After the assassination of Emperor Pertinax, Septimius Severus rose to power, bringing a North African influence from Leptis Magna and shifting the Roman Empire toward greater military control. His reign marked the militarization of imperial politics, and after his death in 211 CE, his sons Caracalla and Geta struggled with internal power conflicts.

Antoninus Pius (138-161)

Antoninus Pius, who ruled from 138 to 161 CE as Hadrian's adopted successor, presided over a peaceful and stable reign marked by minimal military conflict and civic achievements like the construction of a northern wall and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. He was deified after his death, and following Hadrian’s example, he adopted Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his successors.

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

“The Achievements of the Divine Augustus” is a primary source written by Augustus to showcase his accomplishments and shape his legacy as a restorer of peace and stability in Rome. Although presented as a factual account, historians note that it exaggerates military successes and distorts political realities, serving more as political propaganda than objective history. Originally displayed on bronze pillars and distributed across the empire, the text highlights Augustus’ carefully curated image while omitting controversial events like the civil wars. It ultimately reveals how Augustus wanted future generations to remember his reign.

Trajan (98-117)

Trajan, who ruled from 98 to 117 CE, is remembered as one of Rome’s greatest emperors for his military victories—especially in the Dacian and Parthian Wars—his social welfare reforms, and his ambitious building projects like Trajan’s Forum and the Via Traiana. Celebrated as Optimus Princeps, he expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent and left a lasting legacy of prosperity and imperial strength.

The Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy

The Villa of the Mysteries, or Villa dei Misteri, is a well-preserved suburban villa on the outskirts of Pompeii near the Herculaneum gate, discovered in 1909 and dating back to the 2nd century. Buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the villa remained intact under volcanic ash and is now part of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii. It spans 4,000 square feet with around 60 rooms, but its most famous feature is Room 5, believed to be a dining room adorned with vivid frescoes depicting the secretive Bacchus cult. These frescoes are significant as some of the earliest visual sources on this once-outlawed Roman cult. The identity of the villa’s original owners and builders remains unknown.

The Roman Theatre of Orange, France

The Ancient Roman Theatre of Orange, built in the early 1st century CE under Emperor Augustus, is one of the best-preserved Roman theatres in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage site. Located in southern France, it symbolized Roman cultural power and featured a massive stage wall designed for acoustics and imperial imagery. With a capacity of 9,000, the theatre reflected the social hierarchy of Roman society through its tiered seating. After being repurposed as a fortress during the Middle Ages, it was restored in the 1800s and now hosts a major summer opera festival. The theatre stands today as a powerful link between ancient and modern times, celebrating Roman innovation and enduring cultural influence.

The Temple Of Hercules Victor, Rome, Italy

The Temple of Hercules Victor, located in the Forum Boarium near the Tiber River, was built around 120 BCE and is one of the oldest surviving marble structures in Rome. Likely commissioned by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the temple was dedicated to Hercules, symbolizing strength, protection, and hospitality. Unlike most Roman temples, it features a circular design with 20 tall Ionic columns, showcasing strong Greek architectural influence. Originally a religious site in a bustling marketplace, it was later repurposed as a Christian church dedicated to St. George. Today, the well-preserved temple offers valuable insight into Roman religious practices, architectural styles, and cultural adaptation of Greek elements.

Edict of Milan (313)

The Edict of Milan, issued in 313 CE by emperors Constantine I and Licinius, legalized Christianity and granted religious tolerance across the Roman Empire, allowing Christians to worship freely, reclaim property, and build churches. Though it did not make Christianity the official religion, it marked a turning point toward the empire's Christianization and reflected the shifting religious and political landscape of Late Antiquity.

Commodus (161-192)

Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, ruled as Roman Emperor from 177 to 192 CE and is infamous for his controversial reign marked by neglect of imperial duties, a fascination with gladiatorial combat, and increasing tyranny. Though he secured peace with Germanic tribes early on, his obsession with fighting in the Colosseum and erratic leadership alienated the Senate, the Praetorian Guard, and the public. His reign ended in assassination, bringing an end to the Nerva-Antonine dynasty and signaling a turbulent shift in Roman leadership.

Hadrian's Villa

Hadrian’s Villa, located 19 miles northeast of Rome, was a massive 297-acre imperial complex built between 117 and 138 CE, showcasing Hadrian’s architectural vision and cultural admiration. Influenced by Greek, Egyptian, Syrian, and Roman styles, the villa reflected the diverse cultures of the Roman Empire and served as a personal retreat for the emperor. As a microcosm of the empire, it embodied Hadrian’s appreciation for its vast multiculturalism and artistic richness.

Trajan and Hadrian

Trajan and Hadrian were two prominent 2nd-century Roman emperors known for their contrasting yet impactful reigns. Trajan expanded the empire to its greatest size through military conquests like the Dacian Wars and commissioned monumental works such as Trajan’s Column. Hadrian, his successor, prioritized consolidation and stability, famously building Hadrian’s Wall in Britain and promoting culture and architecture, reflecting a shift in imperial focus from expansion to preservation.

Did the new system of government created by Augustus preserve the essential elements of the Republic, or was it a monarchy that kept the facade of the old republican state?

Thesis:
The new system of government created by Augustus was, in essence, a monarchy cloaked in the traditional framework of the Republic. While Augustus preserved the outward appearance of republican institutions—such as the Senate, magistracies, and assemblies—real political power was centralized in his hands, marking a clear shift from shared governance to imperial rule.

Supporting Points:

1. Retention of Republican Forms:
   Augustus carefully maintained the illusion of republican continuity by reviving traditional offices, allowing the Senate to function, and refusing overt monarchical titles. He referred to himself as princeps (first citizen), not king, and claimed to "restore the Republic" in 27 BCE.

2. Consolidation of Power:
   Despite these gestures, Augustus held unprecedented power through a combination of tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) and proconsular imperium. These gave him control over legislation, the military, and provincial administration—powers that effectively made him emperor.

3. Senate as a Rubber Stamp:
   Although the Senate still met and passed decrees, it largely acted to approve Augustus’ policies. Real decision-making shifted from a collective elite to the emperor and his inner circle.

4. Long-Term Impact and Precedent:
   Augustus set the stage for hereditary succession, a key characteristic of monarchy. Later emperors followed his model, gradually eroding the republican forms until they became meaningless formalities.

Conclusion:
Augustus’ regime preserved the appearance of the Republic to avoid backlash, but in practice, it functioned as an autocracy. His political genius lay in masking a monarchy with republican symbols, ensuring stability and continuity while fundamentally transforming Roman governance.

Livia

Livia Druscilla, born in 58 BC, became the first Roman empress after marrying Augustus (formerly Octavian) in 38 BC. As his trusted advisor, she wielded significant political influence and advocated for her son Tiberius to succeed Augustus, possibly playing a role in the deaths of rival heirs. Though their marriage was childless, Augustus posthumously adopted her, securing her status as Julia Augusta. Livia remained powerful until her death in 29 AD and was later deified by her grandson Claudius, solidifying her legacy as the matriarch of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Diocletian (284-305)

Diocletian, likely born in Illyricum to a freedman family, rose through the military ranks to become emperor in 284 AD. Recognizing the vast size of the Roman Empire, he established the tetrarchy in 293 AD—dividing power among four rulers to maintain stability. Despite his administrative success, Diocletian is infamous for initiating the Great Persecution of Christians, beginning with harsh edicts against the Manichaeans in 302 and escalating to widespread destruction of churches and forced sacrifices by 304. His efforts to suppress Christianity ultimately failed, as the faith grew stronger through resistance and martyrdom, and Diocletian abdicated and retired in 305 AD.

Theodosius I "the Great"

Theodosius I, born in Hispania and emperor from 379 to 395 AD, was the last ruler of both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. He transformed the Roman world by making Nicene Christianity the official state religion through the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, suppressing paganism and heresies while elevating the church’s power. His reign was marked by major challenges, including Gothic invasions and civil wars like the conflict with Magnus Maximus. After his death, the empire permanently split, cementing his legacy as a key figure in both Roman political and religious history.

Isis

Isis is the Egyptian goddess of healing, magic, and protection, whose name also means “throne” in ancient Egyptian. She is the sister and wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus, and is known for her powerful magic, including reviving Osiris after his dismemberment by Seth. As Egyptian beliefs blended with Roman religion, Isis became widely worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In The Golden Ass, she plays a key role in restoring the protagonist Lucius to human form, demonstrating her benevolence and compassionate nature, which set her apart from many Roman deities.

Domitian (81-96 CE) 

Domitian, the younger brother of Titus, became Roman emperor in 81 CE. Early in his reign, he implemented economic reforms, revalued the currency, and expanded the empire's borders, earning support from the Senate and the army. Over time, however, his rule grew increasingly autocratic, and tensions with the Senate escalated. In 96 CE, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy, leading the Senate to condemn his memory through damnatio memoriae, an attempt to erase him from official records. Despite this, modern historians recognize that his administration laid foundations for the stability and prosperity of the 2nd-century Roman Empire.

Gaius Caligula

​Caligula became Roman emperor in 37 CE after Tiberius's death, initially receiving widespread support due to his lineage and early reforms, such as ending treason trials and recalling exiles. However, his rule soon turned autocratic; he executed his co-heir, Tiberius Gemellus, and demanded to be worshiped as a living god, straining relations with the Senate and the army. His erratic behavior, possibly linked to a serious illness, included extravagant spending and controversial military actions, like collecting seashells as "spoils of war" during a supposed campaign against Britain . In 41 CE, discontent culminated in his assassination by members of the Praetorian Guard, highlighting the dangers of unchecked imperial power.​

Tetrarchy

Diocletian established the Tetrarchy in 293 CE to stabilize the Roman Empire by dividing authority among two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares), aiming for orderly succession and improved governance across the vast territory. However, upon his and co-emperor Maximian's joint abdication in 305 CE, Diocletian appointed new Caesars without adhering strictly to the succession plan, notably bypassing the sons of the outgoing Augusti, Constantine and Maxentius. This deviation, coupled with the prevailing preference for hereditary succession, led to dissatisfaction and power struggles among the imperial heirs. The resulting conflicts and civil wars undermined the Tetrarchy's stability, leading to its eventual dissolution.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in 9 CE between the Roman army led by Publius Varus and Germanic tribal forces under Arminius. It resulted in a devastating Roman defeat, with three legions — about 15,000 men, or 10% of Rome’s army — being wiped out. The battle exposed the vulnerabilities of Roman military power and showed how poor planning and strategy could undermine even the most dominant empire of the time. It also halted Roman expansion into the Germanic interior.

Damnatio memoriae

Damnatio memoriae was a Roman practice where rulers or the senate tried to erase someone from history by removing their names and images from public records, statues, and monuments. It was mainly used after the first century CE, often targeting disgraced figures like Geta, Caligula, and Domitian. This practice highlights the extent of political control in Rome, where leaders not only eliminated enemies but also sought to erase their memory. It shows how history was manipulated to shape public perception and maintain power.

Stoicism

Roman Stoicism, adapted from Greek philosophy, emphasized self-control, ethical living, and the practice of the four cardinal virtues: prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice. Introduced to Rome by Cicero, it focused on ethics and psychology rather than religious belief, allowing it to fit into a variety of spiritual frameworks. Prominent Roman Stoics like Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Seneca used Stoic ideas to guide personal behavior and leadership, with Aurelius famously reflecting on them in his Meditations. Stoicism eventually declined as Christianity rose and became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire by the fourth century.

Julian "The Apostate" 

Julian, the nephew of Constantine, ruled as Roman emperor from 361 to 363. Though raised Christian, he abandoned the faith and became the last pagan emperor, heavily influenced by Greek philosophy. He tried to reduce the Christian church’s power, even banning Christians from teaching philosophy. Julian was killed during a campaign against the Sasanian Empire, and within decades of his death, Christianity became the official religion of Rome.

Nero (54-68 CE)  

Nero, the fifth Roman emperor and stepson of Claudius, rose to power at 17 with the help of his mother, Agrippina, whom he later had killed to secure his control. His early reign was marked by reforms like ending secret trials, reducing taxes, and improving the rights of slaves, largely influenced by his tutor Seneca. Over time, Nero became increasingly tyrannical, famously blaming Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE and brutally persecuting them. After widespread revolt and being declared a public enemy, Nero fled and committed suicide, leaving Rome in a state of civil war.

Pontius Pilate 

Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor of Judaea from around AD 26 to 36, best known for overseeing the trial and crucifixion of Jesus. He is mentioned in the New Testament, as well as by historians like Josephus and Philo, and confirmed by the discovery of the "Pilate Stone." Pilate’s actions highlight how Rome balanced imperial authority with local customs in its eastern provinces. His role is key to understanding both Roman provincial rule and the early tensions between Judaism and emerging Christianity.

Ara Pacis

The Ara Pacis, dedicated in 13 BC by Augustus, was an altar honoring the personification of Peace and symbolizing the Pax Romana. Located in the Campus Martius, it featured reliefs of mythological figures like Romulus, Remus, and Aeneas, alongside carvings of Italian plants and Greek artistic motifs. The sides depicted a procession of the imperial family, notably including children as a propaganda effort to encourage Patrician birth rates. The monument blended Roman political messaging with religious symbolism and a strong appreciation for Greek culture.

Sol Invictus

Sol Invictus, meaning “Unconquered Sun,” was established by Emperor Aurelian in 274 CE during a time of crisis to unify the Roman Empire through a powerful state cult. Drawing from Eastern traditions like the Syrian god Elagabal, Sol Invictus emphasized cosmic order and imperial authority, offering spiritual hope similar to popular mystery cults. The cult remained influential under later emperors, including Constantine, who continued honoring Sol even as he transitioned toward Christianity. Sol Invictus played a key role in bridging Roman paganism and Christianity, influencing religious unity and traditions like the December 25th celebration.

Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard served as both an elite police force and the personal bodyguard of the Roman emperor, evolving from a military escort during the Republic to a powerful force under Augustus in 27 BCE. Stationed in Rome, they were tasked with protecting the emperor and the city, but they also became infamous for influencing imperial succession, often through assassination, as seen with Caligula’s death in 41 CE. Their power highlighted that an emperor’s rule depended heavily on military support, particularly from the Guard. They remained influential until Constantine disbanded them in 312 CE.

Year of the Four Emperors

The Year of the Four Emperors in 69 CE was a chaotic period following Nero’s death, with no clear successor to the throne. The contenders — Vindex, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius — either died or were quickly overthrown, reflecting the deep political instability of the time. Power struggles between the Roman troops, senate, and people revealed the fragile nature of imperial succession. This period is significant because it highlights how Rome coped with leadership crises and the challenges of maintaining political order without a designated emperor.

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312)

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge, fought in October 312 between Constantine I and Maxentius, was caused by rivalries within the Tetrarchy, with Constantine backed by his late father Constantius’s troops and Maxentius supported locally in Rome. The battle took place on the Milvian Bridge over the Tiber River and ended with Constantine’s victory, making him the sole ruler of the empire. According to later Christian accounts, Constantine and his soldiers experienced a vision from the Christian God before the battle, marking the beginning of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity.

Josephus

Flavius Josephus (37–c. 100 CE) was a Jewish aristocrat, general, and historian who initially fought against Rome during the Great Revolt. After surrendering in Galilee, he became an advisor to the Romans and later gained Roman citizenship. Josephus is best known for his works The Jewish War, Antiquities of the Jews, Against Apion, and Life of Josephus. His writings provide key insights into Jewish history and the relationship between Rome and Judea.

Constitutio Antoniniana, 212

The Constitutio Antoniniana, enacted by Caracalla in 212 CE, granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire, excluding freed slaves and "dediticii" (those who had surrendered in war). One major motive was to increase tax revenue, as citizens were required to pay certain taxes. It also expanded the pool of eligible recruits for the Roman army, since only citizens could serve as legionaries. This decree helped further integrate the provinces into the Roman state and strengthen imperial control.

Notitia Dignitatum:

The Notitia Dignitatum is a late Roman imperial document from the 4th to early 5th century CE that details the civil and military organization of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. It lists officials by title, rank, and location, offering valuable insight into the hierarchy of governors, court offices, and elite military units. The document is one of the most important surviving sources for understanding the structure and complexity of the late Roman state. It highlights how imperial governance had become increasingly fragmented and elaborate over time.

Humiliores 

The term Humiliores referred to lower-class citizens, freedmen, and free non-citizens in late 2nd century Rome, especially after Caracalla’s Constitutio Antoniniana granted widespread citizenship in 212 CE. They contrasted with the Honestiores, the higher-status elites like senators and officials, who received lighter punishments and more legal privileges. Despite the expansion of citizenship, deep social divisions persisted, as the Humiliores continued to face harsher treatment under Roman law. This distinction highlights the ongoing inequality within the empire during the early 3rd century.

St. Jerome  

Jerome was a Christian scholar who lived from 347 to 420 AD, studying in Rome and becoming fluent in Latin and Greek. He wrote firsthand accounts during the Fall of Rome, along with letters that would later become important to Christian scholarship. Jerome’s writings are especially valuable because, unlike many Roman historians, he documented events he personally witnessed. His works also offer a useful point of comparison with other contemporary accounts of the period.

Libertini (freedmen)

The libertini, or freedmen, were former slaves in ancient Rome who gained personal freedom but did not enjoy all the rights of full citizens. They became an important social group, especially during the late Republic and early Empire, often working as merchants and contributing to the economy. Freedmen typically maintained a formal relationship with their former masters, known as a patronus, to whom they owed loyalty. Their growing presence helped blur class lines and reshape Roman ideas of citizenship, status, and labor.