English Grammar: Sentence Structure, Pronouns, Modifiers, and Punctuation

Sentence fragment

A group of words punctuated as a sentence but missing an independent clause (just a phrase or dependent clause alone)

3 sentence building blocks

Subjects (noun actors), Verbs (action/being), Complements (modify/complete meaning)

Independent clause

Has a subject + verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence

Dependent clause

Has a subject + verb but CANNOT stand alone

Phrase

Group of words with no subject

Adjective

Modifies nouns/pronouns; answers which one, what kind, how many

Adverb

Modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs; answers when, how, where, to what extent

Misplaced modifier

Modifier separated from the word it describes, causing confusion — fix by moving it next to that word

Dangling modifier

Modifier with nothing logical in the sentence to attach to — fix by adding the actor it should describe

Squinting modifier

Modifier placed where it could describe either the words before or after it — fix by moving it to one clear side

only/just placement rule

Place directly before the word(s) they are meant to limit; moving them changes the sentence's meaning

Pronoun case: Subject

I, we, you, he/she/it/they (does the action)

Pronoun case: Object

me, us, you, him/her/it/them (receives action or follows a preposition)

Pronoun case: Possessive

mine, ours, yours, his/hers/its/theirs (shows ownership)

Pronoun case: Reflexive/Intensive

myself, ourselves, yourself/selves, himself/herself/itself/themself(ves)

When to use "that"

Introduces an essential/restrictive clause about an object or group — NO commas

When to use "which"

Introduces a nonessential/nonrestrictive clause about an object or group — COMMAS required

When to use "who"

Refers to people — commas depend on whether the clause is essential or not

Antecedent

The noun or pronoun a pronoun refers back to; a verb, adjective, or adverb can NEVER be an antecedent

Ambiguous pronoun reference

When a pronoun could refer to more than one antecedent — fix by repeating the specific noun

Singular indefinite pronouns

anyone, each, everybody, nobody, someone, anybody, every, many a, everything, neither, either, something, nothing, somebody — take singular verbs/pronouns

Plural indefinite pronouns

both, few, several, many — take plural verbs/pronouns

Variable indefinite pronouns (all, most, any, none, more, some)

Match the noun they refer to — countable noun = plural, uncountable noun = singular

Collective noun rule (team, family, council)

Treated as ONE unit — takes a singular pronoun/verb (its, not their) unless referring to individual members

Demonstrative pronouns: this/these

Refer to items that are physically or contextually close; this = singular, these = plural

Demonstrative pronouns: that/those

Refer to items that are physically or contextually far; that = singular, those = plural

Parallelism

Using the same grammatical structure/part of speech for similar items in a series, list, or paired connectors

Parallel connectors

neither/nor, either/or, not only/but also, both/and, rather/or — same part of speech must follow each half

Comma rule with "that" clauses

Never use commas around a that clause (it's essential to meaning)

Comma rule with "which" clauses

Always use commas around a which clause (it's extra, nonessential info)

Comma after introductory elements

Add a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or dependent clause that starts a sentence

Comma with dependent clause after independent clause

No comma needed if the dependent clause comes after the main clause

FANBOYS

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — coordinating conjunctions; use a comma before them when joining two independent (complete) clauses

Comma with compound subjects/verbs/objects

Do NOT use a comma — these are not two full independent clauses

Oxford (serial) comma

The comma placed before the final item in a series of 3+ items, used for clarity

Coordinate adjective comma test

If you can insert "and" between two adjectives and it still makes sense, put a comma between them

Places to avoid commas

Between subject and verb, between compound subjects/verbs/objects, between a transitive verb and its object

Semicolon use #1

Join two independent clauses that are NOT connected by a FANBOYS conjunction

Semicolon use #2

Separate items in a series when the items themselves already contain commas

Semicolon use #3

Precede a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless) that joins two independent clauses — comma follows the adverb

Colon rule

Use only after a complete sentence (independent clause) to introduce a list, explanation, or quotation

Colon exceptions

Subtitles and time expressions don't require an independent clause before the colon

Hyphen use

Joins compound adjectives before a noun (first-class), connects certain prefixes (self-, ex-, non-, all-, semi-), and expresses standalone fractions (one-third)

Em dash (—)

No spaces on either side; sets off emphasis or parenthetical info; must be used on both sides, not paired with a comma

En dash (-)

Spaces on both sides; shows a range between numbers, dates, or places (Monday - Friday)

Apostrophe with singular noun

Add 's even if the noun already ends in s (Chris's, the dress's)

Apostrophe with plural noun ending in s

Add only an apostrophe (the teachers', the interns')

Apostrophe with joint ownership

Add 's to only the last-named owner (Alex and Mary's apartment)

Apostrophe with individual ownership

Add 's to each owner's name (Silvia's and Laron's passports)

its vs it's

its = possessive (no apostrophe); it's = contraction of "it is" or "it has"

Quotation marks — punctuation placement: periods/commas

Always go INSIDE the closing quotation mark

Quotation marks — punctuation placement: semicolons/colons

Always go OUTSIDE the closing quotation mark

Quotation marks — punctuation placement: question marks

Inside if the question is part of the quote; outside if the question is not part of the quote

Capitalization: proper vs common nouns

Capitalize specific proper nouns (MCom 320); do not capitalize general/common references (a business writing class)

Capitalization: titles before a name

Capitalize a job title when it comes directly before the person's name (President Jackie Jones)

Capitalization: occupations before a name

Do NOT capitalize occupations before a full name (owner Sally Ford, coach Rafiki Danube)

Capitalization: vertical lists

Capitalize the first word of every item and keep the list parallel in structure

Capitalization: quotations

Capitalize the first word only if the quote begins the sentence as a complete sentence

Capitalization: compass points

Capitalize only when naming a specific region (the Middle East); lowercase when indicating general direction (heading east)

Number rule: single digits

Spell out numbers one through nine

Number rule: double digits and up

Use numerals for 10 and higher, percentages, measurements, statistics, and page/chapter numbers

Number rule: starting a sentence

Never start a sentence with a numeral, even if 10 or higher — spell it out or rewrite the sentence

Number rule: mixed numbers in one sentence

If a sentence has numbers both under and over 10, use numerals for all of them for consistency

Number rule: numbers over one million

Combine a numeral with a word (2.9 billion, $4.2 million)

Number rule: dates

Use cardinal numbers (July 22, 2023); use ordinal numbers only if the date comes before the month (the 22nd of July)

Number rule: time

Use whole numbers for on-the-hour times; use a colon for fractions of an hour; stay consistent/parallel within a sentence

Number rule: fractions

Hyphenate standalone fractions as words (one-fourth); prefer decimals or percentages in business writing

Subject-verb agreement with intervening prepositional phrase

The verb must agree with the TRUE subject of the sentence, not a noun inside the phrase between them

Subject-verb agreement with relative clause

The verb inside the relative clause must agree with the noun the clause modifies

as well as / along with / together with

These phrases do NOT create a plural subject — keep a singular verb if the main subject is singular

either/or, neither/nor verb agreement

The verb agrees with the noun closer to it — place the plural noun second for smoother phrasing

Present perfect tense

has/have + past participle; a completed action still relevant to the present (I have walked for three years)

Past perfect tense

had + past participle; shows one past action completed before another past action

Future perfect tense

will have + past participle; an action that will be completed before a specific future moment

Double auxiliary verb reduction

Reduce a second "have + verb" to an infinitive (would have liked to see, not to have seen)

Verb tense for permanent truths

Use present tense even when the rest of the sentence is in past tense (she said her name IS Maria)

Indicative mood

States facts, makes statements, asks questions, expresses certainty

Imperative mood

Gives commands, requests, or instructions

Subjunctive mood

Expresses wishes, doubts, recommendations, or hypothetical/unreal situations

Conditional mood

Expresses an outcome that depends on a specific condition being met

Subjunctive "were" rule

Use the plural past-tense form "were" even for singular subjects in hypothetical statements (If I were president)

Subjunctive after suggest/recommend/prescribe

Use "that + subject + base verb" with no -s (Dr. Packer prescribed that Shari take medication)

Polite conditional

"Would like/would be delighted" phrasing used for politeness — consider whether a direct indicative or imperative is clearer