Ap Psychology MEGA study set prologue / unit zero (0)

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature vs. nurture

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review

Socrates

Mind is separate from the body and continues after the body dies; knowledge is innate; derived principles from logic

Plato

Same as Socrates; also a student of Socrates

Aristotle

Derived principles from careful observation; the soul is NOT separate from the body; knowledge is not pre-existing but grows from experiences stored in memory; student of Plato (Empiricism)

Rene Descartes

Dissected animals and concluded the fluid in brain cavities was animal spirits; mind is distinct from the body; on the right path to nerves and nerve pathways; agreed with Socrates & Plato

Francis Bacon

Fascinated by the human mind and its failings; our minds hunger to perceive patterns in random events; spoke to the idea of superstitions

John Locke

Mind at birth is a blank slate; added to Bacon;s idea; helped to form the idea of empiricism (Empiricism)

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of psychology; first lab experiment in Dec. 1879; opened the door to a new science and many branches of psychology (Structuralism)

Edward Titchner

Introduced structuralism and used introspection to discover elements of the mind (Structuralism)

William James

Encouraged exploration of down to earth memories, emotions, will powers, habits, and moment to moment streams of consciousness; professor; mentor to Mary Calkins (Functionalism)

Mary Calkins

Studied under James; went to Harvard but was denied a degree because she was female; went on to become the APA president

Margaret Washburn

First female to receive a degree from Harvard and second female APA president

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician; developed theory on personality; psychoanalytic theory; studied the unconscious

John Watson

Behaviorist; dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as the scientific study of human behavior; believed science was rooted in observation (Behaviorism)

B.F. Skinner

Same as Watson (Behaviorism)

Abraham Maslow

Humanist; emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential, and the importance of meeting our needs for love and acceptance (Humanism)

Carl Rogers

Same as Maslow (Humanism)

Charles Darwin

Natural selection; his ideas have become the organizing principle of biology; evolution has become an important principle for 21st century psychology (Functionalism)

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

double blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participant and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control condition

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next