A-level Sociology: Ethnic differences in educational achievement

What do Troyna and Williams (1986) say about racism in schools?

• We must go beyond looking at individual racism and have to look at how schools routinely discriminate against minority ethnic groups.

• They make the distinction between:

• Individual racism: results from the prejudiced views of individual teachers and others.

• Institutional racism: discrimination that is built into the way institutions operates.

What is institutional racism?

Discrimination that is built into the way that an institution operates.

What type of sociologists believe that racism is an ingrained feature of society?

Critical race theorists

Who describes institutional racism as a form of locked-in inequality?

Roithmayr (2003)

Who suggested that internal factors are the main reason for the the underachievement of Black pupils and why?

• Gillborn and Mirza (2000): in one LEA, they found that Black children were the highest achievers when entering primary school but in regards to GCSE results were one of the lowest achievers.

• This suggests that it isn’t external factors, such as cultural deprivation, that affects achievement, but rather internal factors.

Why are Black and Asian pupils labelled negatively?

They don’t fit teachers notions of the ideal pupil and as a result, they get labelled negatively.

Who found that due to racialised expectations, teachers are quicker to discpline Black pupils than others for the same behaviour?

Gillborn and Youdell (2000)

What did Gillborn and Youdell (2000) say about Black pupils and discipline?

• Teachers were quicker to discipline Black pupils than others for the same behaviour.

• This is due to the racialised expectations of teachers as they expected Black pupils to be more troublesome.

• As a result teachers were more authoratitive when faced with behaviour that they misinterpreted as threatening.

• This led to further conflict between teachers and Black pupils, explaining the high level of exclusions from school of Black boys.

What statistic shows that exclusions have a negative impact on your achievement?

Only 1 in 5 excluded pupils achieve five GCSEs.

In Wright's (1992) study in what ways did Asian pupils also suffer from teacher labelling?

• Despite attempts at multiculturalism, teacher’s ethnocentric views causes them to see British culture and Standard English as superior. '

• This affected their treatment of Asian pupils: assuming that their English would be poor → leaving them out of discussions and using simplistic language when talking to them.

• Teachers often ignored Asian pupils, especially girls.

• Asian pupils felt isolated when teachers mispronounced their name or disapproved of their culture.

According to Archer (2008) what three different pupil identities do teachers create?

• The ideal pupil

• The pathologized pupil identity

• The demonised pupil identity

According to Archer (2008), what is the ideal pupil identity?

A White, middle-class, masculinised identity and heterosexual. Teachers believe that this pupil achieves in the right way through natural ability.

According to Archer (2008), what is the pathologized pupil identity?

• An Asian, “deserving poor”, feminised identity.

• They are either asexual or have an oppressed sexuality.

• They tend to be conformists and culture-bound.

• Teachers believe that they are overachievers who achieved through hard work, rather than natural ability.

According to Archer (2008), what is the demonised pupil identity?

A White or Black, working-class, hyper-sexualised identity. Teachers see this pupil as unintelligent, culturally deprived and an underachiever.

Who found that Asian girls who go against the stereotype of being passive and quiet are dealt with more harshly?

Shain (2003)

What did Shain (2003), find about Asian girls who don't conform to the pathologized pupil identity?

They are often dealt with more severely than other pupils.

In what ways does Archer (2008), note that successful ethnic minorities can still be pathologized?

• Chinese pupils are both praised for their success but also viewed negatively by teachers for the way in which they obtained it.

• Chinese girls are seen as too quiet and passive, whereas boys’ passivity made them effeminate.

• This meant that Chinese pupils can never fit the mould of the “ideal pupil” because they achieved their success incorrectly, through hard work rather than natural ability.

• Archer and Francis (2006): call this view of Asian pupils as a negative positive stereotype. E.g. teachers often wrongly assumed that Chinese pupils were middle-class and, like South Asian girls, thought that Chinese girls’ passivity was a result of their tight and oppressive families.

• Archer says that as a result, the success of ethnic minority pupils will always be seen as an over-achievement as proper achievement is the natural process of the white, middle-class ideal pupil

What four possible responses to labelling did Sewell (1997) provide?

• The rebels

• The conformists

• The retreatists

• The innovators

According to Sewell (1997), what are the rebels?

Pupils who were often excluded from schools; rejected school rules and expressed this opposition through their peer groups. They conformed to the stereotype of the anti-school Black macho lad; based their own superiority in the idea that Black masculinity = sexual experience; they were contemptuous of White boys who they saw as effeminate.

According to Sewell, who are the conformists?

Black boys who are keen to succeed, accepted school's goals and had friends from different ethnic groups. They make up the majority of Black boys.

According to Sewell, who are the retreatists?

Black boys who were disconnected from both school and Black subgroups. They make up a very small minority.

According to Sewell, who are the innovators?

Black boys who are pro-education but anti-school and wish to succeed in school, but try to do so without the approval of teachers.

What does Sewell's study on Black boys' response to labelling show?

That although not all Black boys fit the stereotype of the Black macho lad teachers still label them this way and this leads to the underachievement of Black boys.

What are criticisms of labelling theory (ethnic differences)?

• Too simplistic as it ignores that the racism of the education system can also lead to the underachievement of certain ethnic minorities.

• Not all pupils fall victim to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Who identified the three types of teacher racism?

Mirza (1992)

According to Mirza (1992), what are the three types of teacher racism?

• The colour blind

• The liberal chauvinist

• The overt racist

What did Mirza (1992) find when studying ambitious Black girls?

• Racist teachers tried to discourage Black pupils from their ambitions.

• The girls spent a lot of time at school trying to avoid the effects of teacher racist, e.g. doing work independently and not taking part in lesson.

• Despite the girls' high self-esteem, their strategies to avoid these disadvantages were unsuccessful.

According to Mirza (1992), what is the colour blind teacher?

Teachers who believe that all pupils are equal but still allow racism to go unchallenged.

According to Mirza (1992), what are the liberal chauvinist teachers?

Teachers who believe that Black pupils are culturally deprived and, as a result, have low expectations of them.

According to Mirza (1992), what are the overt racist?

Teachers who believe that Black pupils are inferior and deliberately discriminate against them.

Outline what Fuller (1984), found in her study on Black girls in year 11 who had been negatively labelled?

• She conducted a study of a group of Black girls in year 11 at a London comprehensive school.

• These girls weren’t the norm as they were high achievers at a school where most Black pupils were placed in lower streams.

• Instead of accepting the negative labels placed on them, they used this anger as a fuel for educational success.

• They didn’t seek approval from racist teachers and their friends often consisted of other Black girls from the lower streams.

• They had a positive attitudes regarding academic success, but relied on their own efforts and unbiased external exams.

• They made sure to seem as though they weren’t putting effort into school .

• They did this in order to meet the contradictory demands of succeeding in school whilst remaining friends with Black pupils in the lower streams.

Who's study proved that self-fulfilling prophecies don't always take place?

Fuller (1984)

Who argues that marketisation negatively affects minority ethnic pupils who are stereotyped negatively?

Gillborn (1997)

What did Gillborn (1997) say about marketisation policies?

They argue that marketisation gives schools more freedom to select pupils, leading to negative stereotypes influencing who gets admitted and who doesn’t.

Who showed that selective procedures in American high schools lead to racial segregation?

Moore and Davenport (1990)

What did Moore and Davenport (1990) discover about selection in American schools?

• The selection procedures for American high schools → schools being racially segregated where ethnic minorities end up in the worst schools.

• E.g. primary school reports were used to silt-shift pupils with language difficulties and the application process is a challenge for non-English speaking parents.

According to The Commission for Racial Equality (1993), what reasons lead to minority ethnic pupils being placed in the less popular schools?

• Reports from primary schools stereotype ethnic minority pupils.

• Racist bias in interviews for school places Lack of information and application forms in their native language.

• Minority ethnic parents are unaware of how the waiting list system works and the importance of deadlines.

What does ethnocentric mean?

An attitude or policy that gives priority to the culture and view point of one particular ethnic group, whilst disregarding others.

What is an ethnocentric curriculum?

A curriculum that reflects the culture of one ethnic group.

What do Troyna and Williams (____) note about the languages taught in schools?

They note the little provision there is for teaching Asian languages in comparison to European languages.

Who notes the little provision there is for teaching Asian languages in comparison to European languages?

Troyna and Williams (____)

Who describes the National Curriculum as a "specifically British" curriculum that disregards non-European literature, music and languages?

David (1993)

How did David (1993) describe the National Curriculum?

He describes the National Curriculum as a “specifically British” curriculum that disregards non-European literature, music and languages.

How does Ball (1994) criticise the National Curriculum?

• He is critical of the National Curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity and promoting an attitude of little Englandism.

• E.g. the history curriculum ignores the history of Black and Asian people whilst retelling the mythical age of empire and past glories.

Who critcises the National curriculum for promoting an attitude of little Englandism?

Ball (1994)

Who argues that the ethnocentric curriculum leads to underachivement?

Coard (1971; 2005)

What does Coard (1971; 2005) say about the ethnocentric curriculum?

• They explain how the ethnocentric curriculum → underachievement.

• Ethnic minorities are portrayed as “primitive” and inferior in subjects such as history.

• They then internalise this image → low self-esteem and failure.

How can the idea that the ethnocentric curriculum leads to failure be criticised?

• Although it ignores Asian languages, Chinese and Indian pupils still perform better.

• Stone (1981): argues that ethnic minorities don’t actually suffer from a lack of self-esteem.

Who argued that assessments are rigged against minority ethnic pupils to validate the dominant culture's superiority?

Gillborn (2008)

What did Gillborn (2008) say about testing and institutional racism?

He argues that assessments are rigged against ethnic minorities to validate the dominant culture’s superiority.He noticed that when Black pupils are successful, the rules are changed to create their failure.The example he gives is with primary schools and how they used to use baseline assessments that tested pupils at the start of their compulsory schooling. However, in 2003 they changed this to the FSP which happened at the end of the Reception year. This led to a dramatic change in results based on ethnicity, where in one LEA Black pupils went from the highest achievers → ranking below White pupils in every category.

According to Gillborn (2006), why did schools make the switch from baseline assessments to the foundation stage profile (FSP)?

• The FSP is solely based on teachers’ judgements, whereas the baseline assessments also included written tests.

• The baseline assessment took place at the start of the year whilst the FSP took place at the end of the year.

• He argued that this increased the risk of teachers’ stereotyping and labelling to affect the results.

In 2003, how did assessment in primar schools change?

• In primary schools, they used to use baseline assessments that tested pupils at the start of their compulsory schooling.

• However, in 2003 they changed this to the FSP which happened at the end of the Reception year.

Who noted that when more weighting is given to teacher-assessed tasks, the gap between the scores of ethnic minorities is widened?

Sanders and Horn (1995)

What did Sanders and Horn (1995) note about assesments and ethnic differences in achievement?

When more weighting was given to tasks assessed by teachers, the gap between the scores of ethnic minorities widened.

What did Gillborn (2008) note about Gifted and Talented programmes?

He used Official statistics to point out that White pupils are more than twice as likely as Black Caribbean pupils to be identified as gifted and talented and five times more likely than Black African.

Who noted, using officicial statistics, that White pupils are more likley to be placed in Gifted and Talented programmes than Black pupils?

Gillborn (2008)

Who found that despite being part of the Aiming High initiative, schools were still more likely to put Black pupils than White pupils down for lower tier exams?

Tiky et al (2006)

What did Tiky et al. (2006) find about exam tiers and ethnic differences in achievement?

They looked at 30 schools that were part of the Aiming High initiative and still found that Black pupils were more likely that White pupils to be entered for lower tier GCSEs.

Who created the term new IQism?

Gillborn (2008)

What did Gillborn (2008) say about secondary school assessment?

• He calls the new IQism when teachers make false assumptions about pupils ability or potential.

• Once they assess a pupil’s potential, they put them into a stream or the gifted and talented programme and then see this as unchanging.

• Gillborn (and Youdell) also note how teachers’ racialised expectations may lead to them putting Black pupils in lower sets.

• Overall, Gillborn argues that assessment methods makes the education system institutionally racist as they routinely put ethnic minorities at a disadvantage.

Who rejects the idea that internal factors leads to the underachievement of Black boys?

Sewell

What do critics of the idea of institutional racism use to support their ideas?

• They point out the fact that certain Asian students overachieve.

• This makes them the model minority.

How does Gillborn (2008) criticise the idea of a model minority?

• He argues that making Indians and Chinese pupils the model minority serves and ideological function.

• It promotes the idea that the education system is meritocratic.

• It justifies the failure of other minorities by making them seem less intelligent or unambitious.

• It ignores the fact that the model minorities still suffer from racism.

What did Connolly (1998) discover in his study of a multi-ethnic inner-city primary school?

• It demonstrated how teachers and pupils construct masculinity differently depending on their ethnicity.

• When it came to Black pupils, teachers saw them as disruptive and tried to control them by having them channel that energy into sports.

• Whereas Asian boys were seen as passive, conformists and academic.

• Their misbehaviour was seen as immature rather than threatening.

Who found that teachers and pupils view masculinity different depending on a pupil's identity?

Connolly (1998)

How does Raz (2013) criticise cultural deprivation theory?

It is based on limited research and is a form of victim-blaming and faulting ethnic minorities.

Who criticises cultural deprivation theory for being based on limited research and is a form of victim-blaming and faulting ethnic minorities?

Raz (2013)

Who says that the English spoken by poor Black American families isn’t sufficient for educational success?

Bereiter and Engelmann (1966)

What did Bereiter and Engelmann (1966) say about the language used by poor Black American families?

The English they speak is insufficient for education success as it is incoherent and grammatically incorrect.

Who criticises Bereiter and Engelmann for claiming that the English spoken by poor Black Americans was inadequate?

Labov (1973)

How does Baker-Bell (2020) criticise the claim that the language spoken by Black people is inadequate?

• They argue that claims like these are forms of anti-Black linguistic racism which sees white speech codes as superior to Black speech codes.

• Both are valid, it’s just that White mainstream English dominates the education system.

• She describes this as linguistic violence.

Who said that the claim that Black people’s English is inadequate is a form of anti-Black linguistic racism?

Baker-Bell (2020)

What official statistics show that having English as an additional language doesn’t hinder achievement?

Official Statistics show that in regards to Attainment 8 scores (2018) children who are EAL pupils perform slightly better (47.2) than pupils whose first language is English (46.5).

Who criticises the idea that there is a lack of aspiration among minority ethnic pupils?

Platt and Parsons (2018): among 7-14 year-olds they found that minority ethnic pupils had higher career aspirations in comparison to their White counterparts.

What did Platt and Parsons (2018) find out about aspirations and ethnicty?

Among 7-14 year-olds they found that minority ethnic pupils had higher career aspirations in comparison to their White counterparts.

Who argued that Black children being raised in matrifocal lone-parent families → underachievement?

Moynihan (1965)

What did Moynihan (1965) say was the cause for the underachievement of Black pupils?

• Being raised in a matrifocal lone-parent family → receiving inadequate care.

• It means that boys lack a good, successful male role model.

• This creates a cycle of depravation as these poorly socialised children go onto be inadequate parents.

Who criticises cultural depravation theorists for ignoring the benefits of Black family structures?

Driver (1977)

How does Driver (1977) criticise cultural deprivation theorists?

• They ignore the benefits of Black family structures.

• Black Caribbean families often provide girls with independent women as positive role models.

  • This is why black girls tend to be more successful than Black boys.

How does Sewell (2009) explain the underachievement of Black boys?

• The absence of fatherly nurturing and tough love for Blac boys makes overcoming behavioural difficulties in adolescence difficult.

• Street gangs offer fatherless Black boys perverse loyalty and love.

• These present boys with role models of anti-schoolBlack masculinity.

• Black boys receive a greater amount of anti-school peer pressure.

• The boys Sewell interviewed said peer pressure was the greatest barrier to success.

Who said that the adult authority in Asian families is similar to the way schools operate?

Lupton (2004)

What did Lupton (2004) say was the reason for Asian pupils’ educational success?

• The adult authority in Asian families is similar to the way schools operate.

• This means that they are used to respecting teachers’ authority and their parents are more supportive of behaviour policies.

Who found that minority ethnic pupils were more likely to aspire to go to university compared to white working-class pupils?

McCulloch (2014)

What did Lupton (2004) discover when studying four predominately working-class schools?

• She found that the behaviour was worse at the White working-class schools even though less children were on Free School Meals.

• Teachers blamed this on the low levels of parental support and the negative attitude White working-class parents had towards education.

• Whereas minority ethnic group parents positively viewed education and saw it as a tool for social mobility.

What are criticisms of cultural deprivation theory (ethnicity)?

• Keddie (1973): sees cultural deprivation theorists as victim blaming and argues that ethnic minorities are only culturally different, not culturally deprived.

• Labelling theorists argue that the racist stereotyping of teachers and their low expectations creates self-fulfilling prophecies.

• Critical race theorists argue that the education system is institutionally racist.

• Raz (2013): accuses cultural deprivation of being a political distraction that draws attention away from the real issues that cause underachievement that the government are responsible for, such as poverty and racism.

• Some sociologists argue that material deprivation is a greater factor.

• It ignores the intersectionality that plays a role in creating underachievement.

Who found that middle-class Black parents had the right capital to support their child’s educational success?

Rollock et al. (2014)

Who found that both Black and White middle-class parents engaged in concerted cultivation?

Lareau (2011)

What did Rollock et al. find out about Blac middle-class parents?

Middle-class Black parents had the economic, cultural and social capital to support their children’s educational success.

What did Lareau (2011) discover about middle-class parents?

Black and White middle-class parents both engaged in concerted cultivation by investing in their children’s talents and cultivating their social skills so that they had an advantage at school.

What statistics did Palmer (2012) find to suggest that minority ethnic groups are at greater risk of material deprivation?

• Almost 1/2 of minority ethnic children live in low-income households, compared to only 1/4 of White children.

• Minority ethnic people are almost twice as likely to be unemployed compared to White people.

• Ethnic minority households are three times as likely to be homeless.

• Almost half of Bangladeshi and Pakistani workers earned under £7/hour, compared to only a quarter of White British workers.

What are the reasons why minority ethnic groups are at greater risk of material deprivation? [5]

• Many live in economically depressed areas with high unemployment and poor wages.

• Cultural factors prevent women from working outside the home in Muslim households.

• A lack of language skills and foreign qualifications not being acknowledged by UK employers.

• Asylum seekers may not be allowed to work.

• Racial discrimination in the labour market and housing market.

Who said that poverty was much less of a factor for ethnic minority pupils than for white pupils?

Modood (2004)

What statistic shows that material deprivation is not a hindrance for Chinese pupils compared to white pupils?

In 2011, 86% of Chinese girls who received FSM achieve five or more higher grade GCSEs, compared to only 65% of White girls who were not receiving FSM.

Who found that ethnic minorities are less likely to be called back for interviews when submitting job applications?

Wood et al. (2010)