Kognition

Cognitive psychology

Scientific study of the mind and its mental processes, focusing on how humans perceive, think, remember, and learn.

Perception

Process of interpreting sensory information to understand the environment, objects, and events around us.

Attention

The cognitive ability to selectively focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others, enabling efficient processing.

Awareness

Conscious recognition and understanding of internal and external events and information.

Memory

The processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information to guide behavior and learning.

Language

System of symbols and rules used for communication, thought, and expression of ideas.

Decision-making

Process of selecting among alternatives by evaluating information, outcomes, and personal goals.

Reasoning

Mental processes used to analyze information and draw logical or plausible conclusions.

Problem solving

Higher-order cognitive activity aimed at achieving goals by overcoming obstacles or resolving complex situations.

Human error

Mistakes arising from limitations or failures in cognitive processes such as attention, perception, or decision-making.

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort or working memory resources required to perform a task effectively.

Negative memory bias

Tendency to recall negative events more easily than positive ones, often observed in mood disorders.

Introspection

Method of systematically examining and reporting one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings.

Behaviorism

Psychological approach that studies only observable behavior, rejecting internal mental processes as valid objects of study.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement or observable behavior change, demonstrated by Tolman’s rats forming cognitive maps.

Cognitive map

Mental representation of spatial relationships, allowing navigation and understanding of the environment.

Cognitive revolution

Shift in psychology during the 1950s where mental processes became central to the scientific study of behavior.

Information processing

The perspective that the mind functions like a computer, transforming, storing, and using information in sequential steps.

Computer analogy

Comparison between human cognition and computer processing, emphasizing encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Multi-store memory model

Model describing how information flows through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory register

Brief retention of sensory input (visual, auditory, etc.) before it is processed further or forgotten.

Short-term memory

Temporary storage and active processing of information through maintenance or elaborative strategies.

Long-term memory

Permanent storage system that allows retrieval of information over extended periods of time.

Cognitive science

Interdisciplinary field integrating psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and anthropology to study the mind.

Experimental methods

Systematic research approaches designed to isolate and measure cognitive processes under controlled conditions.

Interdisciplinary approach

Combining theories, methods, and insights from multiple disciplines to better understand cognition.

Verbal reports

Technique for assessing cognitive processes by having participants describe their thoughts and experiences.

Self-report measures

Questionnaires or interviews in which participants describe their own behaviors, feelings, or mental states.

Verbal protocol

Participants verbalize their thought processes aloud while performing a task, allowing analysis of cognitive strategies.

Reaction time

Measurement of the interval between stimulus presentation and response, often used to infer mental processing speed.

Stop-signal task

Task measuring inhibitory control by requiring participants to halt a preplanned response upon receiving a stop signal.

Subtraction method

Method to isolate specific cognitive stages by comparing reaction times between tasks differing by a single process.

Additive factors method

Method assuming cognition occurs in distinct stages, with different factors influencing separate processing steps.

Additive effects

Parallel effects of multiple factors on reaction time, indicating that they affect independent cognitive stages.

Interaction

Occurs when the effect of one variable depends on the level of another, suggesting shared cognitive processing.

Sternberg’s four stages

Model of short-term memory scanning: encoding, comparison (scanning), decision, response execution.

Speed–accuracy trade-off

Phenomenon where faster responses increase errors, and more accurate responses require longer reaction times.

Wordlist recall task

Task requiring participants to remember and retrieve a list of words, used to study memory processes.

Primacy effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list due to increased opportunity for transfer to long-term memory.

Recency effect

Enhanced memory for items at the end of a list because they remain active in short-term memory.

Semantic intrusions

Errors in recall where participants produce words semantically related to studied items but not actually presented.

Signal Detection Theory

Framework for analyzing decision-making under uncertainty, distinguishing between hits, misses, false alarms, and correct rejections.

Criterion

Decision threshold in signal detection; conservative criteria favor fewer false alarms, liberal criteria favor more hits.

Hit

Correct identification of a presented stimulus.

False alarm

Incorrect identification of a stimulus that was not presented.

Miss

Failure to detect a stimulus that was actually presented.

Correct rejection

Correctly indicating that no stimulus was presented.

Cognitive neuropsychology

Study of brain-damaged patients to understand normal cognitive processes and functional organization.

Single dissociation

Observation that a patient is impaired in one cognitive function but intact in another.

Double dissociation

Strong evidence of independent cognitive modules, observed when two patients show opposite patterns of impairment.

Split-brain

Research on patients whose corpus callosum has been severed, preventing communication between hemispheres.

Contralaterality

Principle that each brain hemisphere controls and receives sensory input from the opposite side of the body.

Cerebral lateralization

Functional asymmetry where certain cognitive abilities (e.g., language) are dominant in one hemisphere.

Modularity

Concept that cognitive functions are organized into specialized, independent modules within the brain.

Cognitive neuroscience

Field connecting brain activity with cognition using techniques like fMRI, EEG, and TMS.

Temporal resolution

Accuracy in measuring timing of neural events, typically assessed with EEG or MEG.

Spatial resolution

Precision in locating neural activity, typically assessed with fMRI or PET scans.

TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)

Method that allows causal inference by temporarily disrupting activity in targeted brain regions.

The Black Box Problem

Challenge of understanding hidden internal mental processes that transform input into output behavior.

Connectionist models

Computational models simulating cognition through networks of interconnected nodes resembling neural systems.

Parallel processing

Simultaneous handling of multiple pieces of information across different network nodes.

Excitatory and inhibitory weights

Connections in neural networks that respectively increase or decrease activation in connected nodes.

Top-down processing

Cognitive process where prior knowledge and expectations influence perception or interpretation of stimuli.

Short-term memory

System with limited capacity that holds information for brief periods, usually seconds to a minute.

Long-term memory

Permanent memory storage system for information that persists over long periods.

Atkinson & Shiffrin multi-store model

Model describing information flow from sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory.

Consolidation

Process by which memories become stable and integrated into long-term storage.

Sensory memory

Brief storage system for sensory input that allows initial perception and processing.

Iconic memory

Short-term visual sensory memory retaining images for milliseconds.

Echoic memory

Short-term auditory sensory memory retaining sounds for a few seconds.

Partial report method

Method demonstrating that sensory memory contains more information than can be reported at once.

Whole report method

Method where participants attempt to report all items seen, often limited by rapid decay of sensory memory.

Memory span task

Task measuring the number of items that can be accurately recalled in order.

Miller's magic number seven (7 ± 2)

Classic estimate of short-term memory capacity, although modern research often finds 3–4 chunks.

Chunking

Grouping information into larger, meaningful units to increase short-term memory capacity.

Change-detection task

Task assessing visual short-term memory by detecting differences between stimulus arrays.

Free recall

Retrieval of information in any order without cues or prompts.

Serial position curve

Graph showing memory performance as a function of item position, reflecting primacy and recency effects.

Primacy effect

Enhanced memory for early items in a list due to rehearsal and long-term storage.

Recency effect

Enhanced memory for recent items still present in short-term memory.

Sternberg task

Method for studying how individuals search through items in short-term memory.

Parallel search

Search strategy where all items are scanned simultaneously.

Serial exhaustive search

Sequentially checking all items in memory before responding, regardless of when the target is found.

Serial self-terminating search

Sequentially checking items in memory and stopping once the target is located.

Decay theory

Concept that memory traces fade over time if not actively maintained.

Interference

Phenomenon where memory for some information is disrupted by other information.

Proactive interference

Earlier learning disrupts memory for subsequently learned information.

Release from proactive interference

Improvement in memory performance when the type of material changes.

Brown–Peterson task

Task demonstrating rapid forgetting when rehearsal is prevented. Ex bokstavstriplett (K,R,M) och direkt efter distraktionsuppgift och sedan återkallning.

Working memory

System that actively holds and manipulates information for complex cognitive tasks.

Central executive

Component of working memory that directs attention and coordinates cognitive resources.

Phonological loop

Working memory subsystem handling auditory and verbal information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Working memory subsystem managing visual and spatial information.

Episodic buffer

Component integrating information from multiple sources into coherent episodes.

Dual-task procedures

Tasks demonstrating that working memory subsystems can operate independently.

Operation span

Task measuring working memory by requiring simultaneous problem solving and memorization.

Reading span

Task measuring working memory through reading comprehension combined with word recall.

N-back task

Memory task where participants indicate if the current stimulus matches one presented n steps earlier.

Declarative memory

Memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events with contextual details.