1 The origins and rise of nationalist and independence movements in the Indian subcontinent

Mughal Empire

Muslim empire that ruled India from 1526-1828

British seize power in India

• British East India Company (EIC) establishes trading ports along the coast in the 17th century

• in the 19th century, the EIC began to control large parts of India

• Indian uprising against EIC control (1857-1858) - crushed by British troops, who took control of the EIC

• Mughal emperor’s (no real power at this point) support of the uprising led to removal and exile, India becomes part of the British Empire

new colonial administration

• 500+ princely states - controlled by hereditary Indian rulers with local autonomy

• viceroy - highest official in colonial administration ruling India on behalf of British monarch, limited power to influence policy

• authoritarian government with viceroy and British officials - no meaningful representation of Indians, large army funded by taxes on Indians

• based in assumption of British superiority (religion, intellect, etc.)

• fear of opposition led to stressing differences in religion and caste

• caste system - system dividing society into hierarchy of levels that were determined from birth and determined one’s status, occupation, rights, privileges, and opportunities

India’s political and economic benefits for Britain

• taxes on peasants funded government purchase of EIC shares, finance capital investments, funds for colonial administration instead of internal investment in India

• provision of raw materials (cotton, jute, indigo, rice, tea)

• India consumer of British manufactured goods

• Indian laborers used to protect Britain’s trade interests

• source of indentured laborers for British colonies

  • diaspora - dispersion of people around the world away from their country/continent of origin (ex. Indian minorities in parts of the world due to indentured labor system)

de-industrialization of India

• could not export cloth to European markets

• cloth produced in Britain from Indian raw cotton was re-exported to Asia

• all land used for cash crop production - peasants became dependent on food grown elsewhere

Indian National Congress (INC) (1885)

Indian nationalist organization representing interests of wealthy, educated, English-speaking Indians in the wealthy middle class

• without mass support - limited development of radical nationalist groups

• elitist and conservative - called for:

  • increased Indian representation in legislative councils

  • easier access to Indian Civil Service (group of legislative representatives within British colonial administration in India)

  • less expenditure

  • no mention of removal of British

• mainly Hindu with some Muslim membership - made efforts to recruit Muslims; Indian nation prioritized over castes/religious affiliations

Muslim League (1906)

political organization for interests of Muslim minority (upper-middle class leadership)

conflict in Bengal

proposed partition of province of Bengal (1905) into majority-Muslim eastern province and majority Binali- and Oriya-speaking Hindu western province

• Bengali speaking Hindus (originally the majority in Bengal) saw division as an attempt to threaten their position and Bengali nationalism

• Indian National Congress anti-partition movement -

  petition, protest in press, effective boycott of British goods

impacts of conflict in Bengal

• INC realized the political power of boycotts

• nationalists united for Bengali cause

• development of Indian industries

• British mass arrest had limited impact

• radicalization of INC and development of revolutionary wing New Party

  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak - radical leader of INC in support of active opposition to British rule (swaraj - self-rule)

• increased support for Muslim League by fearful Islamic minority

• concessions after failure to crush protest by Indian secretary of state John Morley

Morley concessions

• gave Indians some representation in government, Muslims given separate representation

• Bengal reunited, capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi

impact of WWI

• India supplied soldiers and resources to Britain, expecting reforms and increased representation in government

• met with repressive measures crushing opposition

• anger compounded by 1918 influenza epidemic

Amritsar Massacre (1919)

• background: nationwide hartal - work stoppage against post WWI repressive measures

• British General Reginald Dyer orders fire on 5000 unarmed protestors (ban on public meetings), killing 379 and wounding 1000

• many women and children killed because soldiers blocked exits

• Indians shocked, some British support

• increased support of ending British rule

• Mohandas Gandhi - outspoken condemner of Amritsar Massacre and leader of congress, emerging dominant figure in nationalist movement

developments after WWI

• boom in Indian industries ← increased demands during the war

• agriculture (still dominant sector of economy) production rate less than population increase

• Wall Street crash and Depression → reduced value of export crops, peasants in debt and thrown off of land

• rural and urban unemployment as Indians attempted migration in search of work

• Government of India Act (1919)

  • Indian ministers given certain responsibilities (agriculture, education, health) in provinces

  • 10% adult male population allowed to vote for provincial legislatures

  • British retained control of police, justice system, and central government in Delhi