introduction to sociology: chapters one through four

1-12: chapter one, 13-42: chapter two, 43-72: chapter three, 73-99: chapter four

sociology

the study of society, including the behaviors, institutions, and relationships that shape social life

society

a group of people who live in a defined demographic era, who interact with one another, and who share a common culture

sociological imagination

an awareness of the relationship between a person’s behavior and experience and wider culture that shaped the person’s choices and perceptions

social facts

laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life

figuration

process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of individuals and the society that shapes that behavior

positivism

the scientific study of social patterns

verstehen

a German word that means to understand in a deep way; outside observers of a social world, an entire culture or a small setting, attempt to understand it from an outsider’s point of view

quantitative sociology

uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants; researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior

qualitative sociology

seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources

structural functionalism

the way each part of society functions together to contribute to the functioning of the whole; level of analysis: macro or mid

conflict theory

the way inequalities contribute to social, political, and power differences and how they perpetuate power; level of analysis: macro

symbolic interactionalism

the way one-on-one interactions and communications behave; level of analysis: micro

sociological research

the systematic study of human behavior, societal interactions, societal patterns; involves gathering and analyzing data to understand how societies function, how individuals relate to one another, how social structures influence people’s actions and beliefs

empirical evidence

comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation

meta-analysis

a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together

hypothesis

a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables

scientific method

an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions

literature review

a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research

independent variables

variables that cause changes in dependent variables

dependent variables

changed by other variables

operational definition

when forming basic research questions, sociologists define the concept in terms of concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it; identifies an observable condition of the concept

reliability

how likely research results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced

validity

how well the study measures what it was designed to measure

interpretive framework

a sociological research approach that seeks an in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, not based on hypothesis testing

primary source collection

consists of the researchers obtaining data directly

secondary data analysis

using data collected by others but applying new interpretations

surveys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions

population

a defined group serving as the subject of a study

samples

small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population

random sample

a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population

quantitative data

represents research collected in numerical form that can be counted

qualitative data

comprises information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting

interview

a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject

field research

gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

primary data

data collected directly from firsthand experience

correlation

when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation

participant observation

when a researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective

ethnography

observing a complete social setting and all that it entails

institutional ethnography

an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships

nonreactive research

using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors

content analysis

applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand

value neutrality

the obligation to remain impartial while collecting, analyzing, and reporting results

culture

shared beliefs, values, and practices

material culture

objects or belongings of a group of people (technology, architecture, clothing)

nonmaterial culture

the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society (beliefs, values, norms)

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies (language, religious practices, education)

ethnocentrism

the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture

cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture

culture shock

an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life

cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards

xenocentrism

a belief that another culture is superior to one’s own

values

a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society

beliefs

tenets or convictions that people hold to be true

ideal culture

the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to

real culture

the way society really is based on, what actually occurs and exists

sanctions

a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors

social control

a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms

norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

informal norms

casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to

formal norms

established, written rules

symbols

gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture

language

a symbolic system of communication

sapir-whorf hypothesis

the way that people understand the world based on their form of language

high culture

mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population

subcultures

groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society

countercultures

groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns

innovations

new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time

discoveries

things and ideas found from what already exists

inventions

a combination of pieces existing reality into new forms

culture lag

the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it

globalization

the interconnectedness and interdependence of countries through the exchange of goods, services, ideas, technology, and culture (international trade, cultural/global brands, technology and communication)

diffusion

the spread of cultural elements (ideas, styles, technologies, etc) from one society or cultural group to another (the spread of technology, food and cuisine, fashion)

social interaction

involves the ways in which individuals act and react to others within a society; the building blocks of relationships, institutions, and communities

social structure

society is often structured by various institutions (family, education, religion, and the economy), which influence how people interact

socialization

the process through which individuals learn how to behave in society and internalize its norms and values; it shapes how people interact with each other

collective conscience

common beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society

social integration

the strength of ties that people have to their social groups

mechanical solidarity

a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture

organic solidarity

a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences

bourgeoisie

the owners of the means of production in society

proletariat

the laborers in a society

capitalism

a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products are owned by individual people and companies

alienation

the condition in which the individual is isolated and divorced from their society, work, and the sense of self

false consciousness

a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person’s own best interest

class consciousness

the awareness of one’s rank in society

rationalization

the belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition

iron cage

a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions

habitualization

the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit

institutionalization

the act of implanting a convention or norm into society

self-fulfilling prophecy

an idea that becomes true when acted upon

roles

patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other that are representative of a person’s social status

status

the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society

ascribed status

the status outside of an individual’s control (sex, race)

achieved status

the status a person chooses (level of education, income)

role-set

an array of roles attached to a particular status

role strain

stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role

role conflict

a situation when one or more of an individual’s roles clash

role performance

how a person expresses their role

looking-glass self

we base our image on what we think other people will see