Introduction to Psychology and Biological Perspective Flashcards

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering introductory psychology principles, historical milestones, research methods, biological perspectives, neuron functions, brain structures, modern perspectives, and sensory-perceptual processes.

Psychology

The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes: how and why we think, feel, behave, and relate with one another.

Overt Behavior

Behaviors and actions that are directly observable by others.

Covert Behavior

Behaviors or mental activities known only to the person experiencing them.

Objective Introspection

The process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities, pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt.

Structuralism

A school of psychology expanded by Edward Titchener that focused on analyzing the basic structures of the mind and breaking experiences down into individual emotions and sensations.

Functionalism

A school of psychology led by William James that focused on how the mind allows people to function, adapt, and survive in the real world.

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological perspective founded by Max Wertheimer focusing on studying whole patterns and complete experiences rather than individual broken-down elements.

Psychoanalysis

A psychological theory developed by Sigmund Freud emphasizing early childhood experiences, the role of the unconscious mind, and development through stages.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology championed by John Broadus Watson that focuses strictly on directly observable and measurable behavior while ignoring consciousness.

Operant Conditioning

A learning theory within the behavioral perspective explaining how voluntary behavior is learned when responses followed by pleasurable consequences are reinforced.

Humanistic Perspective

Known as the 'third force' in psychology, this perspective focuses on human potential, free will, and self-actualization; led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environments without intervention.

Observer Effect

The tendency of subjects to act differently than normal when they know they are being watched.

Observer Bias

The error that occurs when an observer sees what they expect to see due to their own opinions or biases.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure produced by correlation that represents both the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Experiment

The only research method that allows researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships by deliberately manipulating an independent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is directly manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The measure used to evaluate the manipulation of the independent variable in an experiment.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which participant expectations or beliefs influence their own behavior or response in a study.

Double-blind Study

An experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who has received the treatment or the control.

Informed Consent

A participant's agreement to participate in research after receiving clear information about the study's purpose and nature.

Debrief

The process after a research study where the investigator explains the true nature, methods, and expectations of the complete procedures to participants.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Neuron

The specialized cell in the nervous system responsible for receiving and sending electrochemical messages.

Afferent Neurons

Sensory neurons that carry incoming neural messages from the senses to the spinal cord.

Efferent Neurons

Motor neurons that carry outgoing neural messages from the spinal cord to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons located inside the spinal cord and brain that connect afferent neurons to motor neurons.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures attached to the soma of a neuron that receive chemical messages from other cells.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus; maintains cellular health and keeps the cell alive.

Axon

A long fiber attached to the soma that conducts neural messages away from the cell body toward other cells.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty insulation covering the axon that protects the neuron and speeds up the transmission of neural signals.

Action Potential

The electrical potential state created when a neuron fires and transmits an impulse along the axon.

Resting Potential

The electrical potential state of a neuron when it is at rest and not actively firing an impulse.

Synapse

The fluid-filled microscopic space separating the axon terminal of one neuron from the dendrites of another neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, memory, and controlling muscle contractions.

Dopamine (DA)

A brain neurotransmitter involved in the control of voluntary movements and sensations of pleasure.

Serotonin (5-HT)

A neurotransmitter originating in the lower brain associated with mood, sleep, anxiety, and appetite regulation.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system; helps calm anxiety and inhibits movement.

Sympathetic Division

The division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight-or-flight' reactions in times of stress.

Parasympathetic Division

The division of the autonomic nervous system that restores normal bodily functioning and conserves energy after stress.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to continuously alter both its structure and functioning in response to experience or trauma.

Corpus Callosum

A thick, dense band of neural fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal Lobe

The cerebral lobe responsible for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, decision-making, personality, and motor control.

Occipital Lobe

The cerebral lobe located at the rear of the head that houses the primary visual cortex.

Parietal Lobe

The cerebral lobe containing the somatosensory cortex, responsible for processing touch, spatial orientation, and body sensation.

Temporal Lobe

The cerebral lobe responsible for processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation.

Broca's Area

An association region located in the left frontal lobe dedicated to speech production and fluent verbal expression.

Wernicke's Area

An association region located in the left temporal lobe involved in understanding the meaning of written and spoken words.

Thalamus

A central structure in the forebrain that acts as a relay station for sensory information heading to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure located below the thalamus that regulates internal homeostasis, basic physiological drives (hunger, thirst, temperature), and controls the pituitary gland.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure crucial for learning and the formation of permanent declarative long-term memories.

Amygdala

A structure in the limbic system primary involved in fear responses, emotional processing, and memories of fear.

Medulla

A hindbrain/brainstem structure that controls vital life-sustaining automatic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing.

Cerebellum

The lower brain structure that controls balance, posture, fine motor skills, and movement coordination.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' of the endocrine system, controlled by the hypothalamus, which secretes hormones regulating growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Pineal Gland

An endocrine gland located in the brain that secretes melatonin to help track biological rhythms and sleep cycles.

Sensation

The physical process in which sensory organs are stimulated by energy from the external environment.

Perception

The psychological process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to form meaningful internal representations.

Transduction

The conversion of physical energy from environmental stimuli into neural impulses that the brain can process.

Sensory Adaptation

The process in which responsiveness to a constant stimulus diminishes over time, prioritizing detection of environmental changes.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for a person to detect its presence.

Difference Threshold

The smallest amount of change between two physical stimuli that a person can reliably detect half of the time.

Rods

Retinal photoreceptors sensitive to low light that specialize in peripheral vision and night vision.

Cones

Retinal photoreceptors responsible for high visual acuity and color perception in daylight conditions.

Trichromatic Color Theory

Theory stating that color perception originates from mixing signals from three primary wavelengths/colors of light: red, green, and blue.

Opponent-Processing Theory

Theory proposing that photoreceptors are linked in opposing color pairs (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white) where activation of one member inhibits the other.

Binocular Disparity

A visual depth cue based on the slight difference in retinal images created because the two eyes are physically separated.

Perceptual Constancy

The tendency of the brain to perceive familiar objects as maintaining consistent shape, size, or appearance despite changes in retinal images.

Gate Control Theory of Pain

Theory proposing that the spinal cord acts as a gate mechanism, controlling pain transmission through a balance between signals from small pain fibers and large non-pain fibers.

Olfactory Sensory Neurons

Receptor cells located high in the nasal cavity equipped with cilia that convert chemical odor molecules into neural impulses.

Papillae

Textured bumps on the tongue surface containing taste buds.

Gustatory Cortex

The cortical area located in the insula area of the frontal lobe responsible for processing and interpreting taste sensations.