european exploration and atlantic slave trade

Queen Elizabeth I

English monarch (r. 1558-1603) who supported Protestantism and privateering, leading to the defeat of the Spanish Armada and laying the groundwork for English colonization.

Philip II

Catholic King of Spain (r. 1556–1598) who ruled during the peak of Spanish influence and attempted the failed invasion of England with the Spanish Armada.

Queen Isabella & Ferdinand

Spanish monarchs who unified Spain, funded Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492, and completed the Reconquista (expulsion of Muslims).

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese royal who sponsored voyages of exploration down the coast of Africa in the 15th century to find a sea route to the East, funded navigation schools

Spanish Armada

A massive Spanish naval fleet sent to invade England in 1588; its defeat marked the beginning of Spain's decline and England's rise as a naval power.

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea (1498), establishing a vital maritime route for trade.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese explorer funded by Spain whose expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the Earth (1519-1522).

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer funded by Spain who initiated the Columbian Exchange and the European colonization of the Americas in 1492.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who claimed the territory of Canada for France while searching for the Northwest Passage (1534-1542).

Francis Drake

English privateer ("Sea Dog") who attacked Spanish ships, circumnavigated the globe, and was a key figure in the naval rivalry with Spain.

Conquistadors

Spanish soldiers and explorers who conquered vast Native American empires, notably the Aztecs and Incas, in the 16th century.

Scientific Revolution

An intellectual movement starting in the mid-16th century that emphasized reason, observation, and experimentation to understand the natural world, challenging classical and religious authority.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire (1532-1533).

Henry Hudson

English explorer who, sponsored by the Dutch, searched for the Northwest Passage and explored the area of modern-day New York, establishing a Dutch presence.

Northwest Passage

A fabled, unnavigable sea route through the Arctic connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, sought by explorers as a shortcut to Asia.

Dutch Trading Empire

The global commercial network centered on the Dutch East India Company (VOC), dominating the lucrative spice trade in the 17th century.

Java

Island in Southeast Asia that became the primary administrative and commercial base for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in the spice trade.

Circumnavigation

The act of sailing completely around the world, first achieved by a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese, often featuring a lateen sail, essential for early ocean exploration.

Astrolabe

An instrument used by navigators to determine latitude by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies, improving navigation accuracy.

Compass

Navigational tool that uses a magnetized needle to indicate magnetic north, significantly aiding sailors in maintaining direction.

Galleons

Large, multi-decked sailing ships used by European states, primarily Spain, for war and for carrying vast amounts of treasure and cargo across oceans.

Stern Mounted Rudder

A steering device fixed to the back of a ship, originating in China, that replaced side rudders and allowed for greater maneuverability and control.

Lateen Sail

A triangular sail developed in the Indian Ocean that allowed ships to sail against the wind, greatly improving oceanic travel and maneuverability.

Carrack

A large, three or four-masted sailing ship developed in Europe, notably used by the Portuguese for transoceanic voyages and trade.

Fluyt

A European (Dutch) cargo ship designed for maximum space and efficiency, requiring a smaller crew, making maritime trade cheaper and more competitive.

Cartography

The science and practice of drawing maps, which advanced significantly during the Age of Exploration, supporting oceanic travel.

Maize

A staple crop of the Americas transferred to the Old World in the Columbian Exchange, contributing significantly to global population growth.

Measles

A highly contagious Old World virus disease cuasing rashes and fever that unintentionally introduced to the Americas, contributing to the Great Dying of indigenous populations.

Smallpox

A devastating Old World viral disease brought to the Americas in the Columbian Exchange, causing massive mortality among Native American populations.

Malaria

A disease caused by parasites, often spread by mosquitos, that was an ongoing challenge and cause of death, particularly for Africans and Europeans in the Americas.

Typhoid

A bacterial fever and common disease in the Old World that was transferred to the Americas, contributing to the high death rates of indigenous peoples.

Cholera

A severe bacterial disease, often spread by contaminated water, that caused many native americans to die

Great Dying

The catastrophic collapse of Native American populations after 1492 due primarily to the introduction of Old World diseases (e.g., smallpox) from the Columbian Exchange.

Taino

The indigenous people of the Caribbean islands who were the first to encounter Columbus and the earliest victims of the Great Dying and Spanish forced labor.

Sugarcane

A cash crop of Asian origin that was transplanted to the Americas, becoming the most labor-intensive and profitable crop and driving the demand for the Atlantic Slave Trade.

Cacao

A crop native to Mesoamerica (used to make chocolate) that was transferred to the Old World as part of the Columbian Exchange.

Columbian Exchange

The global diffusion of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the Afro-Eurasian world following Columbus's voyages.

Middle Passage

The brutal sea journey that forcibly transported millions of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas as part of the Atlantic Slave Trade.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The business of forcibly transporting millions of Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas, primarily for plantation labor, between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Plantation Agriculture

A large-scale agricultural system developed in the Americas that concentrated on cash crops (like sugar and tobacco) and relied overwhelmingly on coerced labor (slavery).

Oyo Empire

A powerful West African state (Yoruba) that grew wealthy by participating in the Atlantic Slave Trade, trading war captives for European goods.

Triangle Trade

A multi-leg transatlantic trade network that exchanged manufactured goods from Europe for slaves in Africa, and slaves for raw materials/cash crops in the Americas.

Mercantilist

An government controlled economic policy focused on maximizing exports and lowering imports, to increase the power of the mother country.

Dahomey

A powerful West African kingdom that, like Oyo, became heavily involved in the Atlantic Slave Trade, using the profits to acquire firearms and expand its state.

Asante

A very powerful West African empire (in modern Ghana) that rose to prominence in the 18th century by controlling gold production and participating in the Atlantic Slave Trade.

King Alfonso

The ruler of the Kongo Kingdom (r. 1509–1543) who converted to Catholicism and tried to stop the devastating effects of the Portuguese slave trade on his kingdom.

Olaudah Equiano

A prominent abolitionist and former slave whose 18th-century autobiography vividly detailed the horrors of the Middle Passage and slavery, influencing the abolition movement.

African Diaspora

The forced dispersion of Africans from their homelands, primarily to the Americas, due to the Atlantic Slave Trade, resulting in lasting cultural and demographic impacts globally.