Comparative Anatomy Final - Exam 4

Types of connective tissue

1. cartilage

2. bone

3. tendons

4. ligaments

cartilage characteristics

• produced by chondrocytes

• good at resisting compression

• flexible and elastic

• can calcify

  EX) intervertebral discs

bone characteristics

1. produced by osteocytes

2. resists all stresses

3. load bearing

4. stores CA2+

tendon characteristics

1. produced by tendocytes

2. parallel and tightly packed fibers

3. resists tension and torsion

4. attaches muscle to bones

5. can calcify

ligament characteristics

1. fibers go in multiple directions

2. resists tension in multiple directions

3. found in joints, bone to bone articulation

types of stresses

1. compression (smash)

2. tension (stretch)

3. shear (uneven smash)

4. tension (twist)

how do we measure the impact of stress on bones

stress-strain curve (add pic from phone)

what types of connective tissue are good at resisting tension?

bone, tendons, ligaments

what types of connective tissue are good at resisting torsion?

bones, tendons

what types of connective tissue are good at resisting all stresses?

bones

what types of connective tissue are good at resisting compression?

bones, cartilage

what types of connective tissue are good at resisting shear?

bones

changes seen in Slijper’s goat

1. increase spinal curvature → S-curved spine

2. elongated ischium

3. flattened dorsoventral

4. anterior extension of the gluteus muscle

5. broadened neck

6. elongated hindlimbs

types of lever systems

1st class: muscles of the neck to look up

2nd class: plantar flexion (gastrocnemius)

3rd class: elbow

1st class level

pic from notes, ex from lab animal

2nd class lever

pic from notes, ex from lab animal

3rd class lever

pic from notes, ex from lab animal

types of joints

1. Synarthroses

2. Amphiarthrosis

3. Diarthroses

synarthroses joint characteristics

1. restricted movement

2. great strength and allow from growth

EX) sutures, teeth on mandible

amphiarthrosis joint characteristics

1. bone separated by a strip of cartilage

2. allow for growth and movement in the appendicular skeleton

EX) intervertebral discs

diarthroses joint characteristics

1. freely moveable joints

EX) elbow joint

how do you design a limb for force vs speed

pic in phone

interpret the relationship between stability and mobility in joints

pic in phone

primary swimmer

always remain in the water

secondary swimmer

ancestors were terrestrial

aquatic locomotion forces

1. drag

2. propulsion

3. buoyancy

drag

friction and pressure of water

propulsion

method of movement

types of propulsion

1. undulatory

2. oscillatory

undulatory

using tail

oscillatory

using limbs

types of drag

1. frictional drag

2. pressure drag

3. wave drag

frictional drag

force on body surface due to viscosity

pressure drag

displacement of water

wave drag

dealing with waves while swimming at the surface

adaptations to minimize drag

1. decrease surface area:body mass ratio

   • fish become fusiform shaped

   • mammals reduce appendage size

2. change surface structures

   • scales, secrete mucus, lose body hair

3. modify behavior (2nd swimmers)

   • stay under water

   • hold limbs against body to reduce drag

shark adaptations to deal with buoyancy

• store fat in liver

• retain urea in blood

• lighter cartilage skeleton

fish adaptations to deal with buoyancy

swim bladder, some have lungs

2nd swimmers adaptations to deal with buoyancy

body coverings over any openings + modified sense organs

types of terrestrial locomotion

1. cursorial

2. fossorial

3. crawling

4. saltatory / ricochet

5. scansorial

6. flight

cursorial

walking / running

fossorial

digging / burrowing

crawling

limbless animals

saltatory / richochet

jumping

scansorial

misc. group

flight

birds, bats

types of cursorial locomotion

1.walking

• slow and steady

• foot is on the group 75% of the time

• foot area and stability are proportional

2.running

• fast and unstable

• trade speed for foot contact (unstable)

• joints are keeled

• reduce the number of digits

types of fossorial locomotion

1. head diggers

   • reduced limbs

   • strong axial skeleton and muscles

   • EX) moles

2. limb diggers

   • claws

   • big elbows

   • phalanges on bones

   • EX) echidnas

types of crawling

1. lateral undulation (snakes)

2. rectilinear (belly crunches)

3. concertina (anchor points then move them)

4. sidewinder (only 2 points touch at a given time)

saltatory / richocet terrestrial locomotion characteristics

1. extending the hindlimbs simultaneously

2. short forelimbs

3. lots of elastic in tendons and ligaments to conserve energy

types of flyers

1. true flyers: active flyers

   • more control over descent

   • hollow bones

   • fused vertebrae = synsacrum

2. parachuting

types of scansorial locomotion

1. climbers

2. prehensile tails

3. swinging by arms

general functions of the circulatory system

1. transport system (O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones, waste)

2. distributes heat

3. maintains homeostasis

three layers of the heart

1. endocardium = epithelium lining chambers

2. myocardium = muscles layer

3. epicardium = external layer

properties of the heart’s muscles tissues

• skeletal = striated

• smooth = involuntary

what do intercalated discs do

helps keep the hear beating synchronously

major vessel types

1. arteries

2. capillaries

3. veins

function of the arteries

send blood away from the heart

function of the capillaries

thin walled for gas exchange

function of the veins

bring blood back to heart

vessel layers

1. tunica externa = collegen fibers

2. tunica media = smooth muscle

3. tunica interna = endothelium and elastin

what type of vessel is a blood reservoir

veins

GENERAL heart evolution

chamber 4 → 2

• conus arteriosis

• ventricle

• artium

• sinus venosus

some of these chambers are reduced/lost overtime (like in mammals/birds)

• conus arteriosus

• sinus venosus

single circuit → double circuit

myogenic heart

SA node (pacemaker of the heart) allows for the heart to generate it’s own nervous impulses in mammals and birds

describe chondrichthyes / osteichthyes heart

• 4 chambers, valves between to prevent back-flow

  • sinus venosus

  • atrium

  • ventricle

  • conus ateriosus

• single circuit

draw chondrichthyes / osteichthyes heart

upload pic

describe a lungfish heart

• 4 chambers

  • sinus venosus

  • atrium = has a full septum = left right atria

  • ventricle = single chamber

  • conus ateriosus = spiral valve to prevent mixing blood

• partial double circuit

  • low O2 and high O2 blood have the potential to mix

• can switch respiration modes between lungs and gills but not as effective

draw a lungfish heart

upload image

describe amphibia hearts

• 4 chambers

  • reduced sinus venosus

  • atrium = left right atria

  • ventricle

  • reduced conus ateriosus = spiral value prevents blood mixing

• double circuit

draw an amphibian heart

upload image

describe a turtle heart

• 2 chambers

  • CA → ventricle

  • SV → right atrium

  • ventricle is partially separated

  • atrium is completely separated

• double circuit

draw a turtle heart

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describe a crocodile heart

• 2 chambers

  • CA → ventricle

  • SV → right atrium

  • atrium is completely separated

  • ventricle is completely separated

• double circuit

• new structure = foramen of Panizza

  • narrow channel that connects the two vessels leaving the ventricles

• can switch blood flow to bypass lungs when diving

draw a crocodile heart

upload image

describe a aves / mammal heart

• 2 chambers

  • SV → SA node

  • atrium is completely separated by septum

  • ventricle is completely separated septum

    • interventricular septum in mammals not homologous to crocs and aves

• double circuit

• birds continuously ventilate their lungs

• mammals increase musculature of left ventricle (pumps oxygenated blood to the body)

draw a aves / mammal heart

upload image

draw gnathasome embryonic aortic arches

upload image

describe chondrichtheyes aortic arches

Arch I = spiracular artery

Arch II = carotid artery

• II - VI = afferent (ventral) gill arches

• III - IV = efferent (dorsal) collecting loops

Arch I

lost after sharks (spiracular artery)

Arch II

lost when lungs appear

what arches are used for gill respiration

2 and 5

what arches are for lung respiration

3, 4, 6

Arch III

carotids

Arch IV

aorta

Arch V

lost after larval amphibia (lungs)

Arch VI

pulmonary artery