MGT exam 3

Group

two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives

formal groups

defined by the organizations structures

informal groups

alliances that are neither formally structured now organizationally determined

social identity theory

• People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group

• considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups

ingroups and outgroups

Social categorization processes can sometimes lead people to think of people who share their social identity as the ingroup and people from different groups as outgroups

ingroup favoritism

occurs when we see members of our group as better than other people

social identity threat

individuals believe they will be negatively evaluated due to their association with a devaluated group

How can you expect group members to contribute toward or act as a part of the group if they do not identify with the group? 

Managers would do well to promote group members’ identification and manage identity threats while at the same time avoiding biased ingroup favoritism 

stages of group development

• forming

• storming

• norming

• performing

roles

The set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit

norms

The acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members. They help maintain order and cohesion within the group

size

The total number of individuals who belong to the group, which can influence group dynamics and effectiveness

role perception

one's perception of how to act in a given situation 

role exceptions

how others believe one should act in a given situation

psychological contract

an unwritten agreement between employees and employers that establishes mutual expectations

How norms exert influence on an individual's behavior?

Groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard

group conformity

occurs when individuals align their behaviors or beliefs with these norms, either because they value membership in the group or because they fear rejection

positive norms and group outcomes

One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility initiatives is for its values to hold normative sway over employees

groupthink

situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views

why are larger teams preferred?

• More capabilities 

• More resources

• More information and input

• More ideas and possible solutions 

why are smaller teams preferred?

• More cohesive

• Higher member satisfaction

• Faster decision making, consensus

• More effective individual contribution 

social loafing

people tend to exert less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone. This is mostly applicable when individual contributions are not obvious

strengths of group decision making

• More complete information and knowledge

• Increased diversity of views

• Increased acceptance of solutions

weaknesses of group decision making

• Time consuming

• Conformity pressures

• Dominance of a few members

• Ambiguous responsibility 

team synergy

the combined effort of a group of individuals that results in a more effective and efficient outcome than the sum of individual efforts

work team

a group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of individual inputs

contrast groups and teams

all teams are groups, but not all groups are teams

4 types of teams

• Problem solving

• Self managed

• Cross functional

• Virtual 

cross functional work teams

are being used increasingly in organizations to improve coordination of interdependent activities among specialized subunits

What to ask individual team members

• Does this person have any specialized skills?

• What are this person’s goals for being on the team?

• What’s this person's style?

• Are they a high or low performer?

virtual environments

 people are connected on a broader scale but can feel disconnected on a personal level

inconventional work environments

relationship development among members tends to be organic and natural

Shared mental models

• conscious beliefs and implicit assumptions about the cause of performance and the best way to improve it

• Teams are likely to have higher performance if members have a shared mental model that is accurate 

• Managers can help members identify their assumptions about cause-effect relationships, determine ways to assess the accuracy of these assumptions, and jointly develop a more accurate mental model

types of interpersonal communication

• Oral

• Written

• Non-verbal 

Oral communication - speaking

Communication process involves the creation and transmission of verbal messages to the intended receiver, fostering shared understanding through both speaking and listening

Oral communication - listening

This process involves not only a sender transmitting a message, but also the receiver translating, interpreting, and acting on the message, ensuring effective communication and mutual understanding

Written communication

• Email

• Instant messaging and texting

• Natural language processing

Nonverbal communication

Body language, touch and use of physical space. These run the deepest roots of communication

Virtual communication

• Predominantly verbal cues

• Lack immediacy and personal touch

• High technology reliance can cause barriers

face to face

• Rich in non-verbal cues

• Allows for direct feedback and physical presence

• More spontaneous and organic interactions 

information overload

a condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity

communication apprehension

undue tension and anxiety about communication people may experience when communicating with others

communicating in times of crisis

in times of crisis, the context is charged with uncertainty and heightened emotions, which makes clear, concise, and transparent communication crucial 

Definition of leadership

 “leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals”

Leadership vs management

Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders

Non Sanctioned leadership

 influence that is not officially recognized by the organization; exerted outside of a formal organizational hierarchy or structure

Leadership theory paradigms 

a shared mindset that represents a way of thinking about studying, researching and understanding leadership

big 5 personality and leadership

• openness

• conscientiousness

• extroversion

• agreeableness

openness

high openness is positively associated with leader emergence 

conscientiousness

 high conscientiousness is positively associated with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness

extroversion

 the strongest predictor of motivation to lead and leader emergence 

agreeableness

 has only a weak association with leadership

neuroticism

high neuroticism is negatively associated with leadership

good leaders

• Are able to assert themselves (extroverted)

• Are disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious)

• Are creative and flexible (open to experience) 

empathetic leaders can

• Sense others needs

• Listen to what followers say

• Read the reactions of others 

Leadership effectiveness

the measure of a leader’s ability to achieve desired outcomes and to guide a team or organization successfully

Leader emergence

the process where a person attains recognition by their peers due to their traits or behaviors 

Behavioral approach to leadership

• Behavioral approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader

• The focus is exclusively on what leaders do and how they act 

Initiating structure

leaders provide structure for subordinates

consideration

leaders nurture subordinates 

task behaviors

Task-oriented leaders are the “doers” in life, who tend to facilitate task accomplishment

relationship behaviors

Relationship-oriented leaders are not as goal-directed in leadership; they are instead more interested in connecting with others

Contingency approach to leadership

• Focuses on leadership in situations

• Emphasizes adapting style - different situations demand different kinds of leadership

Situational leadership theory (SLT)

successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness to accomplish a specific task 

Follower readiness

the extent to which followers are committed toward and competent in accomplishing a specific task

Directive behaviors: help group members in goal achievement via one-way communication through:

• Giving directions

• Establishing goals and how to achieve them

• Methods of evaluation and time lines

• Defining roles

Supportive behaviors: assist group members via two-way communication in feeling comfortable with themselves, coworkers, and situation:

• Asking for input

• Problem solving

• Praising, listening 

Leader-member exchange (LMX)

theory describes the role-making processes between a leader and each individual subordinate and the exchange relationship that develops over time

Dyadic relationship

a two-party bidirectional relationship

Transformational leadership

is a process that changes and transforms people

Full range leadership model

suggest that there are a number of approaches or styles of leadership that vary on a continuum from passive and ineffective to active and effective

Transformational leadership factors

• Idealized influence 

• Inspirational motivation

• Intellectual stimulation

• Individualized consideration

Transactional leadership factors

• Contingent reward

• Management by exception 

• Management by exception

structure

the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of something complex

Organizational structure

a system that defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated

Pre-bureaucratic

• Small size

• Highly centralized

• Lacking standardization

Bureaucratic

• Mid-large size

• Taller structures

• Greater standardization

As organizations grow, they must decide how to carve employees into sub-units:

• Employee knowledge & skills

• Business function

• Work process

• Output

• Client

• Location

Work specialization

also called division of labor, to what degree are activities subdivided into separate jobs? The more narrowly defined a job is, the more specialized it becomes

functional Departmentalization

groups people with the same skills, or who use similar tools or work processes

Divisional departmentalization

groups a collection of functions organized around a particular geographic areas, product or service, or market 

Mixed departmentalization

created by combining a functional structure with a project or product team structure

Chain of command

reduces confusion and speeds up the process of resolving issues or making strategic moves

Span of control

• How many individuals can a manager efficiently and effectively direct?

  • Narrow span of control

  • Wide span of control
    

Formalization 

To what degree will there be rules and regulations to direct employees and managers?

The mechanistic model

• High specialization

• Rigid departmentalization

• Clear chain of command

• Narrow spans of control

• Centralization

• High formalization

The organic model

• Cross functional teams

• Cross hierarchical teams

• Free flow of information

• Wide spans of control

• Decentralization

• Low formalization

Organizational culture

a system of charred meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations

4 type of organizational culture 

• clan

• adhocracy

• hierarchy

• market

clan

collaboration, well-being, a sense of community

Adhocracy

radical innovation, challenging conventional norms

Hierarchy

stability, formal structures, clear lines of authority

Market

competitiveness, resilience, high performance 

Dominant culture

expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization distinct personality

How culture begins?

The ultimate source of an organization’s culture: the founders

How a culture sustains?

organizational culture originates from the founders’ philosophies, is shaped by selection criteria and socialization practices, reinforced by top management, and perpetuated through structures, systems, and leadership actions

selection

identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully 

Person-organization fit theory

people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values and leave when there is no compatibility 

Top management

establish norms of behavior

Socialization

a process which enables new employees to acquire the social knowledge and necessary skills in order to adapt to the organization culture