new france timeline

founding of quebec

1608

founding of montreal

1642

founding of 100 associates company-

1627

treaty of Utrecht-

1713

queen annes war

1702-1713

the great peace of montreal-

1701

huadnashonee raids

1640s- 1690s

-1689: The Lachine Raid, a devastating attack on the settlement of Lachine, killing 24 settlers and capturing over 60 others. 

• 1690s: French retaliatory expeditions against Haudenosaunee towns in 1693 and 1696. 

when was new orleans founded and why-

1718 and because it was meant to represent the new versali

Two points of creating new orleans 

-create a city that embodied versali- urban grid putting society in order

-driving port and warehouse for all the goods, plants herbs, built for colonial administration 

Why did the french not really care about giving up land in queen annes war also when was this?

1702

hey didn’t really care because they still had all of original new France and this gave them more opportunities to grow their empire in Louisiana.

when was Louisiana founded

1682

When was the seven years war and what was the goal of it…

land and resources in the ohio river valley fought between british and the french. this ended up resulting in the british winning and taking over new france with the treaty of paris later on.

List a couple of important events in the seven years war and the dates:

1759- the British defeat the french in the battle for Quebec and this marks a turning point in the war.

1760- fall of Montreal, the British captured Montreal and this ended french colonial control over Canada.

The mississippi bubble and what year-

1719 and 1720

-so this mississippi company had promises for major profit with all the lucrative things under their control, public demand for company shares skyrocketed

-price shares went from 500 to 18— livers (french currency)

Inflation went crazy and there was a market collapse 

-louisiana has a reputation as being a bad investment and this lead to versali losing interest

The reason why it collapsed- making country profitable is a long process, takes at least more than a year, this company used the shares money to fund their own trips

Why the french want to colonize Louisiana so badly-

1.secure french north america (connection between great lakes, st lawrence valley and mississippi river is logical, also wanting to bloc british expansion by appalachians and rivers)

2. To connect the french west indies with french north america

3.To stop the contraband trade between louisiana forts and spanish colonies 

Louisiana main crops sent out to sell, rice, indigo, tobacco

Canada post 1713 era of prosperity and growth

-population - 21,000 in 1710

-fur trade

New industries- st maurice ironworks, ship building 

Agriculture export of canadian grand to the french west indies

Transatlantic trade= is much more busy for the St Lawrence Valley and also for the entity of the french empire, more ships leaving from more cities, 

-We will, start to notice more difference in the population from those who arrive from france and the regular canadian population, canadians start to form their own identity

-Diverse economy and building new industries, mix of the environment, french culture and Indigenous culture

-Agriculture starts to be exported and sold, can als sustain new France, even people working the land have more consumer power. They use these to be imported goods a lot more variety of objects and food stuff
-this all brought along prolonged peace between french british and spain and dutch colonies are also repairing a similar commercial growth.¸

Louisiana and canada

Similarities–

-the involvement of versailles marks a turning point

-important role of monopolistic companies

-missionaries

-essential ingenious alliances

Differences

-proximity of the french west indies and of the spanish colonies

-influence of ideals of the enlightenment

-colonial society was planned around a plantation based system

Company of the west/ Mississippi or john law company

1717—- This French company was involved in developing French territories in the Mississippi River valley and had a monopoly on French tobacco and African slave trades in the region. 

In the article "A Little Flesh We Offer You: The Origins of Indian Slavery in New France," Brett Rushforth-

In the article "A Little Flesh We Offer You: The Origins of Indian Slavery in New France," Brett Rushforth examines the history and origins of slavery involving Indigenous people in New France (a French colony in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries).                                                                                            -Rushforth explains that, initially, Indigenous people were not considered slaves in the way Africans were enslaved. However, the French settlers in New France began capturing and enslaving Indigenous people over time. This was partly because the French wanted to use Native people as labor for tasks like farming, domestic work, and sometimes as soldiers in conflicts.                                                                                                                                 -He focuses on how the French justified enslaving Indigenous people, explaining that it was based on their understanding of Native cultures and society. They saw Indigenous people as "wild" and not fully civilized. This mindset made it easier for the French to treat them as property. -At the same time, Indigenous people themselves were sometimes involved in the practice of slavery, as they would capture and enslave rival tribes. In New France, the French and Native cultures blended, and slavery became a complex system involving both the French settlers and Indigenous people.                                                                                                                      

-In short, Rushforth’s work sheds light on the complicated history of Indigenous slavery in New France, showing how both European and Indigenous practices contributed to this system.

Urban grid-

-a map of squares that make up where the houses and church should be

-when the british and spanish purchased new orleans from the french they expanded the land still in a grid shape

Natchez (indigenous group)- main allies of the french-

-part of the population the moved in the Mississippi valley from north towards south, kept the most traditional lifestyle that we associate with Mississippi ingenious life style

-much more of a settled lifestyle

-lived in highly fertile lands, gave them things to trade and exchange 

-natchez society revolve their religion around the sun

1729 was the rebellion

-the early decades when french were struggling at colonizing, their relationship with the natchez was stronger, when the french started to invade more their relationship got worse

-they traded at lot with british

-in 1716 when it was time to resign their alliance, the french didn’t smoke the peace cigar of the natchez and they got so offended, they ended up fighting the french

-siding with the british

-they ended up signing with the French again and they worked together to build fort Rosalie, the goal of this was to be in the middle of natchez settlements for easier trade. The french by then had developed different strategies to make sure these alliances of their way, shows that these relationships are important

-they finally sided with french but a lot of them were still secretly alliances with the british especially from the camp called pomme blanche (white apple) this created tensions.

what and when was the natchez rebellion…

-natchez warriors in 1729-1730 stormed the rosaline because they were fed up with the french colonization. The french respond to this event with fear, of more enslaved people would also rebel and aligned themselves with indigenous groups

-French start to foster alliances with other indigenous groups and attack all natchez groups, after 12 days the natchez lets go of all the enslaved africans and captives 

The causes behind the natchez rebellion and the french response-

-greed of settlers 

-dysfunction between leader of for rosaline and ingenious natchez ladders

-poor management of land and trade with the natchez communities, the people selling land and people responsible for trade

Versali has seen this as a failure and this alliance failed, so they changed their governor, the role of the company was revised. Even though they got the fertile land and ingenious groups dispersed

-Versiali and the minister of the navy are deciding to put less energy into adminstating Louisiana 

Code noir- where we see Louisiana become super racist and discriminatory, not law in Canada but Canada took inspiration from it.

Religion articles 1 to 5—

Article 6-

Code noir- where we see Louisiana become super racist and discriminatory, not law in Canada but Canada took inspiration from it.

Religion articles 1 to 5—

-all slaves were to be instructed and baptized into roman catholic apolistlic faith’-practice of no other religions allowed (rule that mostly targeted the practice of traditional african religions)

-sunday and feast days established as non-working day though enslavers observed this rule irregularly 

Article 6- this was happening a lot during this time, white men enslavers having sex with enslaved black womens, enslaved people can't carry weapons, or assemble in groups, or can't go to court on their own..

improving the code noir 1685-1724–

1. Limited amount of freeing of slaves 

2. Reduce interracial mixing

3. Focus the power of inflicting corporal punishment in the hands of the government rather than the hands of the enslavers

4. Sharpen the social divisions between black and whites

Two forms of slave resistance

Two forms of slave resistance

-running away, most slaves running away temporarily, sometimes to heal from punishment or avoid being punished, to heal from disease or visit loved ones on other plantations. Many slaves would negotiate “well if you beat me less i will come back”

-running away shows the failure of the New Orleans urban grid, enslaved people relied on a whole network of accomplices. 

-theft, people wanted little luxuries 

Triangle trade geography-

albany, montreal and new york

Queen Anne’s War Era (1702–1713)

• Illegal Trade Emerges: Colonial officials begin to notice and report on illegal trade between French Montreal and British Albany.

• Fur Trade Declines: The fur trade suffers; provision shortages make legal trading difficult.

• Cross-Border Exchange: Despite restrictions, Montreal sends beaver pelts to Albany and receives fabric(sedans) in return.

• Loose Regulation: While technically illegal, colonial authorities are hesitant to shut it down due to the economic benefits they see.

• French Reaction: Versailles views the trade as a threat and promises to supply equal or better-quality textiles to Montreal to discourage reliance on Albany goods.

• Punishments for Smuggling: Minimal—seizure of cargo, confiscation of canoes, and occasional fines, but rarely any harsh consequences.

Political Ties Between Versailles and New France

• One way Versailles maintained influence in New France was by appointing governors who had personal ties to the French court—either family members or court insiders.

• The last governor of New France, appointed in 1755, was uniquely Canadian-born—the only one ever. This was strategic:

  • Canadian soldiers were more cooperative under leadership they respected and identified with.

  • They generally preferred Canadian-born leadership, which reduced defiance and unrest in the military ranks.

• New Industries were emerging in New France by the mid-18th century:

• These industries caused class struggle:

• New Industries were emerging in New France by the mid-18th century:

  • Ironworks

  • Shipbuilding

• These industries caused class struggle:

  • Canadians began demanding better pay, reflecting rising expectations and a maturing local economy.

  • While there wasn’t a major labor shortage, there was a lack of skilled labor.

  • Some strikes occurred, but workers were often replaced quickly, even with imported labor from Russia, which angered the French government.

  • France became so frustrated they considered shutting Quebec’s industrial efforts down entirely.

Corruption and Administrative Breakdown

• Intendant Bigot is a major figure in the decline of New France:

• Deeply corrupt, he modeled his governance on Versailles—but for personal gain, not for the benefit of Canadians or even the crown.

  • He engaged in:

    • Misuse of funds

    • Forgery

    • Lavish living, hosting parties and keeping a mistress, mimicking Versailles’ culture

• Bigot’s corruption hurt Canadian morale and worsened economic conditions, even as Versailles kept sending money due to ongoing tensions in Europe (especially wars).

• By the 1750s, the St. Lawrence Valley was in crisis explain why?

• By the 1750s, the St. Lawrence Valley was in crisis:

  • Food shortages

  • Famine

  • Sky-high prices

• This ended a period of economic growth that had followed the Great Peace of Montreal (1701).

• Canadians felt increasingly disconnected from Versailles, seeing their leadership as corrupt and self-serving.

Why France Let Canada Go (Even If They Had Won the Wars)

• The financial burden of Canada became too much, regardless of military outcomes.

• Versailles would have had to keep compromising:

  • Economically: due to high costs, corruption, and mismanagement

  • Politically: due to growing local resistance and class-based unrest

• Even victory in war wouldn't have guaranteed control without massive reform—something Versailles didn’t seem willing or able to do.

the King George’s War-

border raids by both sides with the aid of their Indian allies. The only important victory was the New Englanders' capture of Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, on June 15, 1745. 

Indigenous Alliances Before the Seven Years' War:

• British Allies: Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), Cherokees, Chickasaw, Catawba.

• French Allies: Mohawks, Wendat, Abenakis, Nipissing, various groups in the Great Lakes region (Council of Three Fires), Choctaws, Illinois, and Miami in the Mississippi Valley, and Mi'kmaq in the Maritimes.

the years war and the acadians grand upheaval:

(1755-1763):

• The British feared the Acadians (French settlers in Nova Scotia) might side with the French during the war. As a result, they deported them from their homes.

  • Reasons for deportation: Fears of Acadian disloyalty to the British Crown and the desire to take their fertile land.

  • Consequences:

    • 10,000 Acadians were displaced, with many sent to places like France, Louisiana, and the Caribbean.

    • Thousands died from disease and famine during the displacement process.

    • 3,100 Acadians were deported after the British captured Louisbourg in 1758.

    • Only 53% of the displaced Acadians survived.

Why did the french give up Louisiana and keep the french indies colonies-

The French wanted to preserve more of the Caribbean islands because they were more profitable, that's why they gave up canada.

French turned away from louisiana because they were not as profitable as the carribeans but because it was continental it came with difficulties like defense and closeness to indigenous communities 

The Natchez-

The Natchez lived in several villages covering a zone about forty miles long on the east bank of the Mississippi River, near present-day Natchez, Mississippi. At the end of the seventeenth century, they constituted the most powerful indigenous nation of the area.

What was the impact of the Religious Reform and Counter-Reform on these
efforts?

the Religious Reformation and Counter-Reformation shaped the religious, cultural, and political landscape of New France, influencing its relationships with Indigenous peoples, the spread of Catholicism, and its competition with Protestant colonies.

Council of Trent, 1545-1563

a pivotal moment in the history of the Catholic Church, as it responded to the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. By reaffirming Catholic doctrine and instituting reforms, the Council helped to shape the direction of Catholicism in Europe and its influence in the world, including in the New World through missionary work. The decisions made at Trent were critical in preserving the unity and identity of the Catholic Church in a time of deep religious division.

Pillars of new france-

1. Commercial pillar- Fur Trade

Why fur? When the French took it over the fur trade became a global market and sold all over the world. Furs at this time was fashion of the elliet. France sees Canada as an opportunity to become the main supplier of fur, and lots of potential for growth and profit.

• Felt hats became super popular and female and male fashion/ accessible across all classes

• This means there's a bigger class of people that want them so more profit

2. Pillar: alliances with indigenous people

1603 alliance with inuit people

1608-1609 alliance with algonquin speaking people

1609 alliance with wendats

-The biggest training factor at this point for indigenous people was fabric and later on cotton

-warfare

Missions and the Catholic Counter-Reformation

• The Catholic Church played a big role in New France through missions.

• Main goals of the missions:

  • Teach Catholic faith

  • Convert people (especially Indigenous peoples)

  • Fight sin (seen as “the devil’s work”)

• The Recollet Order (a group of missionaries) arrived in 1615, at Champlain’s request.

  • They were there to:

    • Help educate settlers

    • Convert Indigenous peoples to Catholicism

JESUITS’ PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES

1- Baptizing the dying and the sick, without necessarily having their consent, to save their soul.
2- Undermining the authority
• of the shaman
• of women

3- Drama and appeal to emotions

4- Advocacy of the supremacy of the written word.

URSULINES AND MARIE DE L’INCARNATION

1642- Feminine religious order.
•Arrival in Québec in 1639, 1st convent built in 1642.
•Ursulines’ mission: education of Canadian and Indigenous girls.
•By the beginning of the 18th century: all the school’s pupils were Canadian girls.

MOURNING WAR COMPLEX-

Causes: real or imagined transgression from outsiders:
• Killing, wounding or capture of relaties
• Suspicion of sorcery, thievery or trespassing
• Variety of breaches of protocol and public insults
Goals of war:
• Avenging
• Expression of grief
• Gain captives (incorporative endeavour)
• Adoption/Assimilation: To replenish the
population after demographic losses
• Ritual torture and exection: catalysts of grief for
warriors, but also the rest of the community
(women, children, elderly etc).
Cyclical

Impacts of settlers on indegenious communities-

-New European-manufactured goods become part of Indigenous people’s
material life
-Changing patterns of hunting to supply the French fur trade
-Some Indigenous people converted to Catholicism
-Epidemics

THREE CAUSES OF THE FALL OF WENDAKE—

1634-1639= decimating small pox epidemics (estimate of the ½ wendat population dies from the disease)

1640s= raids and attacks by the haudnasunee, wendat population either got killed or caputured

1647-1649= wendat abandonded their villages and sought refuge elsewhere

Officially ended in 1649

CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL OF WENDAKE FOR THE COLONY OF CANADA—

-Vulnerable to Haudenosaunee raids – Montréal in particular (50
habitants in 1651)
-Disruption of the fur trade networks and supply chain: Wendat and Algonquins of the Ottawa River.
-Disappearance of an important supplier of food—grains in particular– for the colony and other non-farming Indigenous communities.

Louis XIV and the restructuring of the France government and the five problems-

1- the governance of the colony, all under the control of versali—

governor= Embodies the king’s authority: diplomacy, military, territorial control

intendant= legislation, administration, police and judiciary finances and budget

superior council= presided by the intendant, court of appeal for civil and criminal cases.

2- PROTECTING AND AUGMENTING THE COLONIAL POPULATION
-Carignan-Sallière -Regiment King’s daughters -Indentured servants

3- 3RD PROBLEM: DIVERSIFYING THE ECONOMY: AGRICULTURE
Seigneurial system—Mode of development and exploration of the land.
Simplification of the French feudal system.
Seigneurs—- Landed (but not aristocratic) elite
Tenants (« habitants » or « censitaires)

4th problem- control and profitability of the fur trade—
-End of the Company of Hundred Associates.
-Royal Monopolistic company: French West India Company, 1664
-License or « congés »system to regulate more fur trading activities and
encourage settling and agriculture

5- territorial expansion= solution to many aforementioned problems, as well as a testament to Louis XIVs vision of a grand New France:

-posts for the fur trade

-military protection against the huadnashonee

Caring for the growing population and exploring the land-

-New Religious Institutions
• to better train and care for the colonial population’s physical and spiritual life
• Sulpicians’ Order became the Seigneurs of the Island of Montréal
• Montréal quickly becomes the garden and orchard of the colony.

What were mission settlements in New France?

Mission settlements were villages set up by French Jesuit missionaries to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity and assimilate them into French culture.

Name some examples of mission settlements in New France.

Examples include Saint-François-Xavier, Caughnawaga, and Sault-Saint-Louis in the Saint-Lawrence Valley.

What was the goal of the French missionaries in the mission settlements?

The goal was to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity and help them adopt French customs, language, and lifestyle, a process called "Francisation".

What is the Seigneurie system?

The Seigneurie system was a French land system where the land was divided and granted to individuals (seigneurs), with missionaries often acting as the administrators of the land in mission settlements.

Who owned the land in the mission settlements?

The land was technically owned by the Indigenous communities, who maintained sovereignty over it, even though French missionaries were involved in the administration of these settlements.

How did Indigenous communities view French authority?

Many Indigenous communities refused to become subjects of the King of France and did not fully submit to French control, despite being allies in trade and warfare.

What were "Amerindian Reductions" in New France?

Amerindian Reductions were mission settlements, also known as villages domiciliés, where Indigenous peoples were gathered to live under the influence of French missionaries.

What was the role of architecture in mission settlements?

Architecture in mission settlements blended Indigenous and French designs, combining European colonial style with elements of Indigenous building traditions.

what and when was the metacoms war?

It was 1675

and it was the Native Americans' last-ditch effort to avoid recognizing English authority and stop English settlement on their native lands

assault of peskeompskut-

English men led by Captain William Turner entered the Native fishing camp at Peskeompskut, beside the falls on the Connecticut River, north of Deerfield. Pocumtuck, Sokoki, and Nipmuc women, children and elders had taken refuge here, along with Wampanoag and Narragansett people who were escaping the fighting in the south. At Turner's signal, the English silently surrounded the wigwams and the peaceful dawn exploded into violence. Gunshots, screams, and flames rent the air as the English shot into wigwams and set them afire. Terrified Native people fled through the smoke to the river where many were shot down or drowned. Over 300 Native people and one English soldier died before Native men hunting nearby rushed to the scene and routed the assailants, killing Turner and 36 others in a disorganized retreat.

KING WILLIAM’S WAR, (NINE YEARS’ WAR, WAR OF THE AUSBOURG LEAGUE, WAR OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE)

1688-1697

 It was fought to prevent French expansion into the region, particularly in the fur trade

what happened in 1697-1701 to the peace treaty of Montreal being signed-

1697-1701: Preparing the Peace

• Albany, Montréal, Québec, and Michilimakinac: These places were key locations for peace discussions. They served as centers where French officials and Indigenous groups met to discuss peace and resolve conflicts.

• Indigenous Delegations: Indigenous groups sent delegations (representatives) to Montréal, Québec, and Michilimakinac to participate in these peace talks.

• Jesuits and Colonial Officers: The Jesuits (Catholic priests) and French colonial officers were sent to Michilimakinac to negotiate with the Indigenous groups and try to bring about peace.

• Jesuits in Haudenosaunee Villages: The Jesuits also went to the Haudenosaunee villages (Iroquois Confederacy) to participate in peace efforts and encourage peaceful relationships between the French and the Haudenosaunee.

In summary, from 1697 to 1701, the French and Indigenous groups prepared for peace talks. Jesuits and French officers were sent to important locations to help facilitate discussions and work towards peace, especially with the Haudenosaunee.

Explain the consequences of the treaty:

Foundation of Detroit in 1701
• Which will create conflicts in the area
Did pacify the Saint-Lawrence Valley
• But conflicts reappeared in the Great Lakes and
Westward
Haudenosaunee remained neutral until the
Seven Years War (1755-1760)
Established the French and the governor of
New France as a diplomatic force and
reliable intermediary in Indigenous
matters.

What century did slavery terminology start to shift…

-enslaved instead if slave

-enslaver instead of master or owner

what year was the CODE NOIR DES ANTILLES and what was it?

As a plantation-based slave society
• Inspires the whole project of Louisiana
• Developing trade networks with New France (Canada, Île- Royale and Louisiana)
• Model a French colonial institution of slavery

List the three royal colonies in New France during the years from 1713-1760

canada, ile royale, Louisiane

what does the fur trade look like in war—

during times of war, the fur trade faced challenges like slowed trade, lower prices for furs, and higher costs for goods, but it remained an important part of French-Indigenous alliances. Additionally, there was an excess of furs stored in Québec, and illegal trade grew during this time.

What is Mercantilism?

• Mercantilism is an economic system where a country tries to get rich and powerful by:

  • Exporting more than it imports (sell more than it buys)

  • Controlling colonies so they provide raw materials (like fur, wood, sugar)

  • Using colonies as markets to sell European-made goods

  • Keeping gold and silver in the royal treasury (don’t let money leave the country!)

EARLY FRENCH PRESENCE IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY (1682-1713)-

1682-1699 First temporary settlements and Jesuits missions; none last War of the Ausbourg League (1688-1697) occupied the attention and resources of the French.

1699-1702 PeacetimeNew attempts at establishing settlements

1702-1713 Queen Anne's WarGreat struggles for the small nascent establishment of Louisiana to survive.

list some similarities and differences between Louisiana and Canada-

SIMILARITIES
• The involvement of Versailles
marks a turning point
• Important role of monopolistic
companies
• And of missionaries
• Essential Indigenous alliances

DIFFERENCES

Proximity of the French West
Indies and of the Spanish
colonies.
• Influence of ideals of the
Enlightenment (rationality,
science)
• Colonial society was planned
around a plantation-based
system.

what was the objectives and the person behind Louisiana fincial plan?

Financial Plan:
• Objective: Make $$$ to help France recover from its wartime debts
• Creation of the Banque Générale de France
• Issues banknotes and company shares
• Company of the West, 1717, incorporated into the bigger French Company of the Indies
• Detains many monopoles in the French colonies, including in Louisiana.

WHY SLAVERY IN CANADA AND ÎLE- ROYALE TOOK THE SHAPE IT DID... ?

-TRADE ROUTES

-PRICES OF ENSLAVE PEOPLE

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE KEY EVENTS AND ELEMENTS OF CONTEXT THAT LED FRENCH SETTLERS, TRADERS AND THEN OFFICIALS TOWARDS THE PRACTICE OF ENSLAVEMENT OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE?

enslaving Indigenous peoples in New France was shaped by a combination of economic needs (especially for labor in the fur trade), racial attitudes, colonial policies, and the broader global system of slavery. French settlers and officials relied on Indigenous labor to maintain the colony, but they justified the enslavement through cultural, religious, and political factors. Despite these factors, Indigenous resistance and the complex nature of French-Indigenous relationships meant that enslavement was never fully widespread in New France compared to the African slave trade in other French colonies.

MESKWAKI WARS

Meskwaki (Fox) Wars – Simple Summary

• The Meskwaki, also known as the Fox people, were an Indigenous group living around what is now Wisconsin and Illinois.

• Between 1712 and 1737, they were involved in a long, violent conflict with the French and their Indigenous allies.

• These conflicts are called the Fox Wars or Meskwaki Wars.

---

Why Did the Wars Happen?

1. Control of Trade Routes:
   The Meskwaki were located near important fur trade routes and wanted to control them.
   This threatened French economic interests and access to the interior.

2. French Alliances:
   The French supported other Indigenous groups (like the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Illinois) who were rivals of the Meskwaki.

3. Refusal to Be Controlled:
   The Meskwaki resisted French demands and refused to be pushed aside in the fur trade.

---

Major Events

• 1712: First major war breaks out. The Meskwaki attacked Detroit, a major French trading post.

• The French and their allies counterattacked, leading to massive loss of life among the Meskwaki.

• 1720s–1730s: Continued raids, battles, and French attempts to wipe out the Meskwaki entirely.

• The French even issued orders to "exterminate" the Fox people.

---

What Happened in the End?

• By 1737, the Meskwaki were defeated militarily and scattered.

• Survivors joined with the Sauk (Sac) Nation, forming the Sac and Fox Nation, which still exists today.

The Three Main Parties in the Meskwaki Wars (Fox Wars)-

1. Meskwaki (Fox) and Their Allies

   • Included: Kickapoo, Sauk, and Winnebago peoples

   • They wanted to protect their land and trade routes

   • Resisted French control and interference

2. Great Lakes Indigenous Allies of the French

   • Included: Anishinaabeg, Odawa, Illinois, Miami, and Wendat

   • These groups had long-standing alliances with the French

   • Often fought alongside the French against the Meskwaki

3. The French

   • Had been making alliances with Indigenous nations since 1701

   • Wanted to protect the fur trade and their colonial power

   • Supported attacks against the Meskwaki but also tried peace talks

The First Meskwaki War (1713–1716)

-The war started after conflicts over trade and territory.

-The French backed raids against the Meskwaki, led by their Indigenous allies.

-At the same time, the French tried to find a peaceful solution, showing they weren’t completely focused on war.

-Big consequence: Many Meskwaki were captured and sent as enslaved people to the Saint-Lawrence Valley(places like Quebec), where they lived in French settlements or were forced to work.

1713–1716: First Meskwaki War

• The French helped their Indigenous allies attack the Meskwaki.

• At the same time, the French also tried to make peace, but fighting continued.

• As a result of the war, many Meskwaki were captured and enslaved, then taken to the Saint-Lawrence Valley(like Quebec).

1716–1724: “Uneasy” Peace

After the fighting, there was peace, but it wasn’t stable. Here's why:

What the Peace Agreement Said:

• Meskwaki had to return prisoners they had taken.

• The French allies (Anishinaabeg, Odawa, Illinois, Miami, Wendat) were also supposed to return Meskwaki captives.

• Gifts and captives were exchanged, which was a traditional way to restore peace and respect.

• The French hoped peace would help them trade further west again.

Why It Was an "Uneasy" Peace:

• The French broke their word and did not return Meskwaki captives, even though that was part of the agreement.

• The Meskwaki felt pressured into accepting the peace terms and were unhappy with how it turned out.

• The French and their allies had suffered from Meskwaki raids, so there was still tension and mistrust.

• Overall, no one was fully satisfied, and the situation remained fragile and tense.

SHAPING THE ENSLAVED POPULATION OF LOUISIANA 1719-1731:

Important influx of enslaved Africans, mostly from all the same region in Africa
1730-1760: natural increase, but also irregular rade in enslaved individuals with the French, Spanish and British Carribean colonies. Circumstances that allowed for the quick development of an Afro-Creole culture specific to the
Louisiana context.

Enslaved Africans and Labor in Early Louisiana (Simple Summary)1720s–1730s: Early Years

1740s–1750s: Big Changes

1730s: Early Years

• Louisiana had labor shortages, so work was done by a mix of people:

  • Enslaved Africans

  • Poor white settlers

  • Indentured servants (Europeans who worked for a set number of years)

• Everyone often worked side by side, especially in the early years of the colony.

1740s–1750s: Big Changes

• Plantations (large farms) became more common.

• The economy grew, and white settlers started to gain more wealth.

• At the same time, slavery became more permanent and brutal.

• Racist beliefs became stronger and were used to justify the continued enslavement of Africans.

• A clear racial divide was created between enslaved Black people and free white people.

IMPROVING THE CODE NOIR, 1685; 1724.

1- Limit manumission, that is the freeing of slave, and therefore the growth of a free Afro-Creole population.

2-Reduce interracial mixing

3-Focus the power of inflicting corporal punishment in the hands of the
government rather than in the hands of the enslavers

4- sharpen the racial division between blacks and whites.

Criminal Ordinance of 1670 and followed specific steps:

1. Information: The King's Prosecutor would start by presenting accusations or complaints to initiate an investigation, such as in the case of an enslaved person accused of theft.

2. Confrontations: The accused, including enslaved people, would be questioned or confronted with the charges.

3. Judgment: After reviewing the evidence and testimonies, a judgment would be made. If the accused was sentenced to death, there was the possibility of an appeal.

4. New Round of Information: If an appeal was made, further investigation could take place, including the use of torture to extract more information.

Enslaved people's involvement in legal proceedings was rare. They could sometimes be accused or witnesses, but under the Code Noir (1724, Article 24), they had limited legal rights:

• They were usually not allowed to hold public positions or serve as witnesses unless absolutely necessary, and only if no white person could testify.

• Enslaved people could not testify against their masters, though they could sometimes testify for them in certain cases.

Testimonies of enslaved people were often recorded by clerks or scribes, who transcribed the exact words spoken by the accused or witnesses.

The Contraband Corridor:

Why Did the Contraband Corridor Thrive?

The Contraband Corridor:

The connection between Montréal and Albany was crucial in the development of the city and the wider colony. This route was key for trade, including the illegal smuggling of goods (contraband), which flourished despite efforts to stop it.

Why Did the Contraband Corridor Thrive?

• Trade between French and English Traders: Smugglers moved goods like English cloth and other items between cities, avoiding taxes or restrictions.

• Indigenous Involvement: Indigenous people were central in this network, often acting as intermediaries.

• Bribery and Corruption: Some officers were bribed to ignore or allow smuggling activities, making it easier for the trade to continue.

• Geography and Secrecy: The geography of the area, along with the use of hidden or discreet locations (marked by red circles on maps), helped the trade thrive for an extended period.

who got what in the treaty of paris?

Great Britain
• Île-Royale, Louisbourg, Canada, Ohio
Valley, East of the Mississippi River

Spain
• New Orleans and West of the
Mississippi River

France
• Recuperates Caribbean islands conquered by the British during the war: Saint-Lucia, Guadeloupe and
Martinique.
• Keeps the islands of Saint-Pierre and
Miquelon in the Gulf of the Saint-
Lawrence

• The Jumonville Affair (May 27, 1754):

• George Washington, leading a Virginian militia, attacked Joseph Coulon de Villers de Jumonville and his French troops in the Ohio Valley, starting tensions that would escalate into full-blown war.

Who and why did the huadnashonee stop being neutral in the seven years war-

In 1746, Sir William Johnson was appointed as the British Crown's agent among the Haudenosaunee people, marking the end of their neutrality in the conflict between Britain and France.

Royal Proclamation and what year

1763 – Royal Proclamation: After Britain won the Seven Years’ War, it took over French territories in North America. This Proclamation tried to control colonial expansion and protect Indigenous land (at least in theory).

what changed and stayed the same in Canada during the late 1700s-1800s

-Fur trade was still central to the economy and involved French Canadians, Indigenous people, and Métis voyageurs.

What Changed:

• Canadian elite transformed (new people in power, more British influence).

• Printing press and newspapers arrived — more people were reading and discussing ideas.

• More English-speaking settlers moved into Canada.

• 1791–92: Creation of the Constitutional Act, setting up a form of Parliament.

• Fur trade began to decline, and new industries like logging and early industrialization grew.

• 1854: End of the seigneurial system (old landholding structure from New France).

The British takeover of New France is called the "Conquest."

-Indigenous peoples were deeply affected by the change in power.

-Historians still debate how to understand this period — it's a big turning point in Canadian and Quebec history.

Historical Debate: Was the Conquest a Disaster or Just a Change?

There are two main schools of thought about how to view the Conquest of New France (especially from a Quebecois perspective):

🏫 École de Montréal (Montreal School)

• Says the Conquest in 1760 is the key moment that made Quebec "fall behind".

• Believes British colonial rule kept Quebec economically and socially behind the rest of Canada.

• Says independence is the only way to fix this.

• Tends to support Québec nationalism.

🏫 École de Québec (Quebec City School)

• Tries to move away from emotional or black-and-white views of the Conquest.

• Says we should look at what people really lived through, not just argue about whether it was good or bad.

• Thinks calling it only “conquest” or “cession” (handing over territory) hides the fact that Quebecers were a conquered people, and that this gets downplayed today due to political correctness and multiculturalism.

• Suggests that young people aren't learning enough about this part of history in school.

Why, for a long time, did French Quebecers seem to have fewer opportunities than Anglo-Canadians (less education, lower income, fewer chances to move up)?

Different historians blame different things:

-Some say it’s because of British colonialism (they were kept down).

-Others say it’s because Quebec didn’t adapt to the modern British-style economy and society.