Key Concepts in Second Language Acquisition and Linguistics

First language (L1) acquisition

Occurs naturally and effortlessly in childhood.

Second language (L2) acquisition

Often involves conscious effort, is influenced by prior knowledge, and can be affected by age, motivation, and environment.

Cognitive differences in L1 vs L2 acquisition

L1 is acquired with innate cognitive mechanisms; L2 relies more on explicit learning, memory, and problem-solving strategies.

Biological differences in L1 vs L2 acquisition

L1 occurs during a biologically sensitive period; L2 acquisition after this period is often less successful and more variable.

Affective differences in L1 vs L2 acquisition

L2 learners may face anxiety, self-consciousness, or lack of motivation—factors that rarely affect L1 learners.

Fundamental Difference Hypothesis

L1 and L2 acquisition are fundamentally different processes, with L2 relying more on general problem-solving than on innate linguistic mechanisms.

Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 acquisition

There is an optimal window (early childhood) for acquiring a second language with native-like proficiency; after this period, it becomes significantly more difficult.

L1 transfer

When knowledge of a first language influences the learning or use of a second language; can be positive or negative (interference).

Interlanguage grammar

A learner's evolving understanding of L2 grammar that combines elements from L1 and L2; it is rule-governed but not identical to either language.

Dialect

A regional or social variety of a language.

Idiolect

An individual's unique variety of speech shaped by personal experience, background, and identity.

Dialect continuum

A range of dialects spoken across a geographical area that gradually change and may not be mutually intelligible at the ends.

Dialect leveling

The process by which regional dialect differences are reduced, often due to increased communication and mobility.

Regional dialects

Language varieties associated with specific geographic areas, often with distinct phonological or lexical features.

Phonological differences

Variations in pronunciation across dialects.

Lexical differences

Variations in vocabulary (e.g., 'soda' vs 'pop').

Syntactic differences

Differences in sentence structure between dialects.

Morphological differences

Variations in word formation (e.g., verb endings).

Dialect maps/atlases

Visual representations showing where certain linguistic features occur geographically.

Isogloss

A boundary on a map marking where a particular linguistic feature is used.

Social dialects

Language varieties associated with social groups (e.g., class, ethnicity, gender).

Language purists

People who believe in preserving a 'pure' form of a language, often resisting changes or borrowings.

Sociolinguistic analysis

The study of how language varies and changes in social contexts.

Banned languages

Languages that are suppressed or forbidden by governments or institutions.

Genderlects

Varieties of language influenced by gender norms or identities.

Lingua franca

A language used for communication between speakers of different native languages.

Pidgin

A simplified language that develops for communication between speakers of different languages; has limited vocabulary and grammar.

Creole language

A fully developed language that evolves from a pidgin once it becomes a native language of a community.

Superstrate language

The dominant language that contributes most vocabulary to a pidgin or creole.

Substrate language

The less dominant language that influences the grammar or phonology of a pidgin or creole.

Codeswitching

Alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation or sentence.

African American English (AAE)

A social dialect with distinct grammatical, phonological, and lexical features spoken primarily by African Americans.

Latino English

Varieties of English spoken by Latinx communities, influenced by Spanish and regional variation.

Linguistic profiling

Discriminating against someone based on their dialect, accent, or language use.

Gullah

A creole language spoken by African Americans in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia, with strong African influences.

Phonological change

Changes in sound systems (e.g., vowel shifts).

Morphological change

Changes in word formation patterns (e.g., new affixes).

Syntactic change

Changes in sentence structure or word order.

Lexical change

Changes in vocabulary; new words added or old ones disappear.

Semantic change

Changes in word meanings over time.

Regular sound correspondences

Predictable changes in pronunciation between related languages.

Genetic relationships among languages

Languages that descended from a common ancestor (e.g., Romance languages from Latin).

Protolanguages

Hypothetical reconstructed ancestral languages (e.g., Proto-Indo-European).

Proto-Indo-European

The theorized common ancestor of Indo-European languages.

Comparative method

A technique for reconstructing the features of a protolanguage by comparing related languages.

Comparative reconstruction

Rebuilding aspects of a protolanguage using cognates and sound correspondences.

Cognates

Words in different languages that have a common historical origin.

Historical evidence of sound change

Documentation or patterns showing how sounds have shifted over time (e.g., Grimm's Law).

Grimm's Law

A set of sound changes describing how consonants changed from Proto-Indo-European to Germanic languages.

Verner's Law

Explains exceptions to Grimm's Law based on stress patterns in Proto-Indo-European.

Neo-Grammarian hypothesis

The theory that sound changes occur systematically and without exception.

The Great Vowel Shift

A major change in English vowel pronunciation during the 15th-18th centuries.

Reasons for language change

Include language contact, social change, simplification, innovation, and reanalysis.

Analogic change

Language change based on analogy, where irregular forms become regular (e.g., "dive" → "dived").

Approximate number of languages in the world

About 7,000.

Inverse relation between number of languages and population size

Regions with smaller populations often have more languages (e.g., Papua New Guinea); populous regions may have fewer.

Language isolates

Languages with no known relatives (e.g., Basque).

How and why languages die

Languages die due to colonization, cultural assimilation, lack of transmission, and globalization.

Endangered languages

Languages at risk of no longer being spoken by future generations.

Moribund languages

Languages spoken only by older generations and not being passed on to children.

The Linguists (film)

A documentary that follows linguists trying to document endangered languages around the world; available on Kanopy.