Practical and Written Exam Study Guide

Sagittal plane

A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left parts.

Frontal plane (coronal)

A vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Transverse plane

A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts.

Superior (cranial)

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above.

Inferior (caudal)

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below.

Anterior (ventral)

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of.

Posterior (dorsal)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind.

Medial

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side.

Proximal

Closer to the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

Superficial (external)

Toward or at the body surface.

Deep (internal)

Away from the body surface; more internal.

Epidermis

The outer layer of skin, a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Dermis

The layer of skin beneath the epidermis containing connective tissue.

Hypodermis

The deepest region of skin, consisting of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue.

Anatomy

The study of structure.

Physiology

The study of functions at many levels.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite outside changes.

Negative feedback

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus.

Positive feedback

The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus.

Integumentary system

Includes hair, skin, and nails, acts as the external body covering and protects deeper tissues.

Epithelial tissue

Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

Connective tissue

A primary tissue that forms and functions vary extensively, providing support, storage, and protection.

Muscle tissue

Responsible for body movement.

Nervous tissue

Specialized tissue of the nervous system that helps all parts of the body to communicate.

Keratinocytes

Cells that produce fibers of keratin, a waterproof agent.

Melanocytes

Cells that produce pigment in the skin.

Stratum corneum

The outermost layer of the epidermis consisting of dead cells that are shed away.

Stratum basale

The innermost layer of the epidermis containing stem cells that produce keratin.

Rules of 9's

A method used to estimate the volume of blood loss from burns.

Cell membrane

A biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of all cells from the external environment.

Nucleus

The organelle that houses the cell's genetic material and regulates gene expression and cell division.

Ribosome

A cellular structure responsible for protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA.

Organelles

Specialized structures within a cell that perform distinct processes, such as energy production and waste disposal.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

The molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in growth, development, functioning, and reproduction.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

A nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation, serving as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes.

Enzyme

A protein that catalyzes chemical reactions, speeding up processes in the body.

Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Metabolism

The set of life-sustaining chemical reactions that provide energy and the building blocks for growth.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death that is a normal part of development and homeostasis.

Homeostasis

The process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

Feedback Mechanism

A process that uses the conditions of one component to regulate the function of another component.

Hydrophobic

Substances that repel water.

Hydrophilic

Substances that are attracted to water.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.

Electrolyte

Minerals in the body that carry an electric charge and are essential for various physiological functions.

pH Level

A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is, on a scale from 0 to 14.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate various functions in the body.

Structural Levels of Organization

The hierarchy of organization in living organisms, ranging from cells to tissues to organs to systems to the whole organism.

Cell Theory

A fundamental concept in biology stating that all living things are composed of cells, and cells are the basic unit of life.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into various cell types in the body.

Prokaryotic Cells

Unicellular organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, such as bacteria.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in multicellular organisms like plants and animals.

Tissue

A group of similar cells that perform a specific function together.

Organ

A collection of tissues that work together to perform a specific function in the body.

Organ System

A group of organs that work together to perform complex functions.

Homeostatic Imbalance

A disturbance in the body's equilibrium, which can lead to disease or dysfunction.

Metabolic Rate

The rate at which the body converts food energy into usable energy.

Cardiovascular System

The system responsible for the circulation of blood and lymph throughout the body, consisting of the heart and blood vessels.

Respiratory System

The system that facilitates breathing, including the nose, throat, and lungs.

Digestive System

The system responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste.

Endocrine System

A collection of glands that produce hormones regulating metabolism, growth, and function.

Nervous System

The system of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Immune System

The body's defense system against infections and diseases.

Musculoskeletal System

The organ system that enables humans and animals to move using the muscular and skeletal systems.

Integumentary System

The system comprising the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands, protecting the body from external damage.

Reproductive System

The system involved in producing offspring, including organs such as ovaries and testes.

Urinary System

The system responsible for removing waste from the body and regulating water and electrolytes.

Cell Division

The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy carrier in all living organisms.

Chromosomes

Structures within cells that contain DNA, carrying genetic information.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes.

Meiosis

A specialized type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four haploid cells.

Ligands

molecules that bind to specific receptors on cells to trigger a response.

Antigens

Substances that trigger an immune response, often proteins found on the surface of pathogens.

Vaccination

A method of stimulating the immune system to prepare for future infections by introducing antigens.

Histones

Proteins that package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, forming the basis of the nervous system.

Ligands

Molecules that bind to specific receptors on cells to trigger a response.

Antigens

Substances that trigger an immune response, often proteins found on the surface of pathogens.

Vaccination

A method of stimulating the immune system to prepare for future infections by introducing antigens.

Histones

Proteins that package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, forming the basis of the nervous system.

Glucose

A simple sugar that is an important energy source in living organisms.

Hemoglobin

A protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues.

Chlorophyll

The green pigment found in plants that is essential for photosynthesis.

Neuron Transmission

The process by which neurons send signals to communicate with each other.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Physiology

The study of functions at many levels.

Negative Feedback

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus.

Positive Feedback

The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus.

Integumentary System

Includes hair, skin, and nails, acting as the external body covering and protecting deeper tissues.

Epithelial Tissue

Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

Connective Tissue

A primary tissue that forms and functions vary extensively, providing support, storage, and protection.

Muscle Tissue

Responsible for body movement.

Nervous Tissue

Specialized tissue of the nervous system that helps all parts of the body to communicate.

Keratinocytes

Cells that produce fibers of keratin, a waterproof agent.