IB Psychology HL (PAPER 2)

Altruism

Altruism

Helping others without a direct benefit or expectation of reward.

Prosocial

Helping others with the expectation of a (smaller) reward.

Reciprocal Altruism

Helping others with the unconscious expectation of eventual repayment.

Kinship Selection

Altruistic behavior driven by the desire to help genetic relatives.

Burnstein et al.

Experiment on kin selection, where subjects rated genetic similarity and willingness to help relatives.

Madsen et al.

Study on willingness to endure hardships to help family members in the UK and Africa.

Bystanderism

Phenomenon where the presence of others affects the likelihood of helping someone.

Diffusion of Responsibility

When individuals don't help because they assume others will or feel underqualified.

Pluralistic Ignorance

People conform more in ambiguous situations, as seen in the Aschline Test.

Proximity Theory

The more time spent around someone, the more attractive they become, known as the Mere Exposure Effect.

Compatibility

The more similar someone is to us in attitudes and traits, the more attractive we find them.

Reciprocity

The tendency to like those who like us, as shown in the Axelrod and Hamilton game theory.

Learned Helplessness

Seligman's experiment showing how past experiences can lead to a sense of helplessness.

Self-defeating Bias

Belief that negative events are one's fault and positive events are due to luck.

Polar Thinking

Viewing the world in black and white categories.

Arbitrary Inference

Drawing conclusions without evidence.

Brown and Harris

Factors like loss of a parent, lack of friends, and unemployment increase the risk of depression.

Ahs et al.

PET scan study showing brain activation in response to fear-inducing stimuli.

Chugani (1999)

PET scan study on glucose metabolism in infants and toddlers, highlighting intense neuroplasticity.

Giedd et al

MRI study on brain development in children and adolescents, showing changes in white and grey matter.

Kuhn et al

Study on the effects of video games on the brain, revealing increased grey matter volume in specific brain regions.

Piaget & Inhelder (1956)

Study on egocentrism in children, demonstrating the development of perspective-taking skills.

Baillergeon & De Vos

Study on object permanence in infants, showing early development of this concept.

Freund (1990)

Study on mother-child interaction and its impact on a child's problem-solving abilities.

Winsler et al

Study on private speech patterns and social development in young children.

Nichols et al

Study on motivation in college participants, comparing cooperative learning to traditional lectures.

Pepler & Ross (1981)

Study on divergent and convergent play materials and their impact on creativity in children.

Pretend Play and Divergent Thinking

Russ, Robins & Christiano (2010) found that the ability to engage in pretend play at 6 or 7 years old predicted divergent thinking over a 4-year period, showing that quality of imagination predicted divergent play independent of IQ.

Sociometric Status in Play

Coie & Dodge (1988) discovered that a child's sociometric status in play can significantly impact the child's academic progress.

Cognitive Effects of Institutionalization

Rutter et al (2007) studied children in Romanian orphanages, finding that prolonged institutionalization led to cognitive impairment, while early adoption showed no cognitive differences compared to children adopted locally.

Effects of Neglect on IQ

Koluchova (1972) followed neglected twin boys who improved their IQs significantly over time, catching up academically by age 14, attending university, and forming positive relationships.

Physiological Delays in Institutionalized Children

Spitz observed that orphaned children displayed physiological delays and atypical emotional expressions compared to non-institutionalized children.

Massage Protocol for Premature Infants

Field (1986) showed that a massage protocol for premature infants led to greater weight gain and earlier hospital discharge, potentially explaining size differences in institutionalized versus non-institutionalized children.

Marital Quality and Threat Response

Coan, Schaefer & Davidson (2006) found that holding a spouse's hand reduced threat response, with higher marital quality correlating with lower threat response.

Neuropeptide Y and Resilience

Morgan et al (2009) discovered that soldiers with higher Neuropeptide Y levels showed better resilience during stressful training simulations.

Resilience in Adverse Childhoods

Werner & Smith (2001) found that many individuals with childhood risk factors grew into competent adults, with most overcoming problems by middle age, highlighting reasons for resilience.

Malnutrition and Cognitive Development

Pollitt et al (1995) demonstrated that protein supplements improved cognitive functioning in malnourished children, emphasizing the role of nutrition in cognitive development.

Effects of Malnutrition on Attention

Kar et al (2008) revealed that malnourished Indian children had lower attention, working memory, and visuospatial task scores, with older children showing less impairment.

Environmental Stimulation and Cognitive Development

Farah et al (2008) linked environmental stimulation and parental nurturing to language development and long-term memory performance.

Cognitive Load and Financial Situation

Mani et al (2013) showed that cognitive ability decreased when financial situations were made salient, impacting performance in hypothetical and real-life situations.

Attachment Patterns and "Strange Situations"

Ainsworth et al (1978) identified attachment styles by observing children's responses to separations and reunions in "strange situations."

Cultural Differences in Attachment Styles

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis showing cultural variations in attachment styles, with Type B (secure attachment) being most common but distributed differently across countries.

Love Quiz and Attachment History

Hazan & Shaver used a love quiz to link attachment history to current attachment styles, finding that parental responsiveness influenced attachment patterns.

Attachment Style and Adult Relationships

Simpson et al (1996) demonstrated that attachment style influenced adult relationships, with insecurely attached individuals showing negative strategies in discussions.

Maternal Attachment Style and Child's Attachment

Fonagy et al found a strong correlation between a mother's attachment style and her child's attachment style, indicating a 75% match between the two.

Biological Origin of Gender Identity

Imperato-McGinley et al (1974) studied the Batista family, showing a strong biological basis for gender identity despite social upbringing.

Gender Schema Theory and Memory Distortion

Martin & Halvorson (1983) tested gender schema theory, revealing memory distortion in children when stories conflicted with gender schemas.

Gender Schema Theory and Toy Preferences

Martin et al (1995) explored gender schema theory, finding that children predicted same-sex peers' toy preferences based on their own gender.

Parental Responses to Gender Behavior

Fagot (1978) observed parental reactions to gender-appropriate and -inappropriate behavior, showing more positive responses to gender-appropriate actions.

Gender Stereotyping in Infants

Condry & Condry (1976) demonstrated gender stereotyping in adults' perceptions of infants' emotions, attributing anger to boys and fear to girls.

Understanding Others' Desires

Repacholi & Copnik (1997) revealed that by 18 months, children could understand others' desires, contrasting with egocentric responses at 14 months.

False-Belief Testing in Children

Baron-Cohen et